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Non-discrete effects in language, or the Critique of Pure Reason

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The problemWe tend to think about language as a system of discrete elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences)But this view does not survive an encounter with reality

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Слайд 1Non-discrete effects in language, or the Critique of Pure Reason 2


Andrej A. Kibrik (Institute of Linguistics RAN and Lomonosov Moscow

State University) aakibrik@gmail.com

Non-discrete  	effects	in language,   			or the Critique  				of Pure Reason 2 Andrej A. Kibrik

Слайд 2The problem
We tend to think about language as a system

of discrete elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences)
But this view does

not survive an encounter with reality
The problemWe tend to think about language as a system of discrete elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences)But

Слайд 3Simple example: morpheme fusion
детский
det-sk-ij ‘children’s, childish’
Root-Suffix-Ending
[deckij]
suffix
deck-ij
root

Simple example:  morpheme fusionдетский	det-sk-ij ‘children’s, childish’	Root-Suffix-Ending	[deckij]	  suffix	deck-ij  root

Слайд 4Similar exampes abound on all lingustic levels
Phonemes: coarticulation
cat keep cool
Words:

clitics
iz mašiny ‘from the car’
iz ... mašiny ‘from ... the

car’
iz taksi [is taksi] ‘from the taxi’
Clauses: parcellation
I’ll come, in a minute
These are primarily syntagmatic examples: non-discrete boundaries between linearly arranged units

Similar exampes abound on all lingustic levelsPhonemes: coarticulationcat	keep	  coolWords: cliticsiz mašiny ‘from the car’		iz ... mašiny

Слайд 5Paradigmatics
The same problem applies to paradigmatic boundaries, that is boundaries

between classes, types, or categories in an inventory
Questionable phonemes
Russian жюри žjuri

‘jury’
[ž’ur’i]
even though supposedly there is no palatalized [ž’] in Russian (in this position)
Questionable words and clauses
I want [to go]
particle infinitival clause
I wan[na go] ??

cf. жури žuri ‘rebuke’

ParadigmaticsThe same problem applies to paradigmatic boundaries, that is boundaries between classes, types, or categories in an

Слайд 6Semantics
X said smth (Zaliznjak 2006: 186)
‘X uttered a sequence of

sounds’
‘X meant smth’
‘X expressed his belief in smth’
‘X wanted Y

to know smth’
‘X wanted Y to perform smth’
.................
Some of these meanings are shared by X told smth, but some are not
SemanticsX said smth (Zaliznjak 2006: 186)‘X uttered a sequence of sounds’‘X meant smth’‘X expressed his belief in

Слайд 7Diachronic change
Russian писать pisat’ ‘write’
Funny slangish use:
popisal nozhom ‘cut/slashed someone

with a knife’, lit. ‘wrote with a knife’
One of the

Indo-European etymologies of the root pis- is ‘create image by cutting’
Apparently the ancient meaning of the root, several millennia old, is still present in a marginal usage of the modern verb
Diachronic changeRussian писать pisat’ ‘write’Funny slangish use:popisal nozhom ‘cut/slashed someone with a knife’, lit. ‘wrote with a

Слайд 8Language contact
The Baltic language Prussian, spoken in this area until

the 16th – 17th century
Vladimir N. Toporov
In the existing texts

Prussian syntax is almost fully copied from German (Luther’s Catechism)
In the 18th century, when Prussian was extinct, German-speaking peasants of the area used many Prussian words
Language contactThe Baltic language Prussian, spoken in this area until the 16th – 17th centuryVladimir N. ToporovIn

Слайд 9Intermediate conclusion
Language simultaneously
longs for discrete, segmented structure
tries to avoid it
Non-discrete

effects permeate every single aspect of language
This problem is in

the core of theoretical debates about language
Intermediate conclusionLanguage simultaneouslylongs for discrete, segmented structuretries to avoid itNon-discrete effects permeate every single aspect of languageThis

Слайд 10Possible reactions
“Digital” linguistics (de Saussure, Bloomfield, Chomsky...):

More inclusive (“analog”) linguistics:

often a mere statement of continuous boundaries and countless intermediate/borderline

cases

ignore non-discrete phenomena or dismiss them as minor
Ferdinand de Saussure:
language only consists
of identities and differences

the discreteness delusion

a bit too simple-minded

appeal of scientific rigor but extreme reductionism

Possible reactions“Digital” linguistics (de Saussure, Bloomfield, Chomsky...):More inclusive (“analog”) linguistics:  often a mere statement of continuous

Слайд 11Cognitive science
Rosch: prototype theory
Lakoff: radial categories
A is the prototypical phoneme/word/clause/

meaning...
B, C, and D are less prototypical representatives
We still need

a theory for:
boundaries between related categories
boundaries in the syntagmatic structure
Cognitive scienceRosch: prototype theoryLakoff: radial categoriesA is the prototypical phoneme/word/clause/ meaning...B, C, and D are less prototypical

Слайд 12My main suggestion
In the case of language we see the

structure that combines the properties of discrete and non-discrete: focal

structure
Focal phenomena are simultaneously distinct and related
Focal structure is a special kind of structure found in linguistic phenomena, alternative to the discrete structure
It is the hallmark of linguistic and, possibly, cognitive phenomena, in constrast to simpler kinds of matter

My main suggestionIn the case of language we see the structure that combines the properties of discrete

Слайд 13Various kinds of structures

focal point 1
focal point 2

discrete structure

continuous structure
focal structure
1
2
1
2

Various kinds of structures▐focal point 1focal point 2			   discrete structure▐continuous structurefocal structure1212

Слайд 14Still more realistic: amoeba structure

Still more realistic: amoeba structure

Слайд 15Examples

focal point 1
focal point 2
det sk
said told
*pis- pis-
Prussian German
Syntagm.
Paradigm.
Diachr.
Lg.contact
etc., etc.

Examples▐focal point 1focal point 2det						sksaid						told*pis-						pis-Prussian					GermanSyntagm.Paradigm.Diachr.Lg.contactetc., etc.

Слайд 16Peripheral status of non-discrete phenomena
Where does it stem from?
Objective properties

of language?
I don’t think so
Or, perhaps, properties of the observing

human mind?
This directly relates to one of the key issues in The Critique of Pure Reason

Peripheral status of non-discrete phenomenaWhere does it stem from?Objective properties of language?I don’t think soOr, perhaps, properties

Слайд 17Kant’s puzzle
The role of observer, or cognizer, crucially affects the

knowledge of the world
“The schematicism by which our understanding deals

with the phenomenal world ... is a skill so deeply hidden in the human soul that we shall hardly guess the secret trick that Nature here employs.”
NB: Standards of scientific thought have developed on the basis of physical, rather than cognitive, reality
Physical reality is much more prone to the discrete approach
Compared to physical world, in the case of language and other cognitive processes Kant’s problem is much more acute
because mind here functions both as an observer and an object of observation, so making the distinction between the two is difficult

Kant’s puzzleThe role of observer, or cognizer, crucially  affects the knowledge of the world“The schematicism by

Слайд 18Recapitulation: A paradoxical state of affairs
Science is based on categorization

(Aristotelian, “rationality”, “left-hemispheric”, etc.)
The scientific approach is inherently biased to

noticing only the fitting phenomena
It is like eyeglasses filtering out a part of reality
Addressing another part of it is perceived as pseudo-science, or quasi-science at best
Language is unknowable, a Ding an sich?
Recapitulation:  A paradoxical state of affairsScience is based on categorization (Aristotelian, “rationality”, “left-hemispheric”, etc.)The scientific approach

Слайд 19What to do?
We need to develop a more embracing linguistics

and cognitive science that address non-discrete phenomena:
not as exceptions or

periphery of language and cognition
but rather as their core
Can we outwit our mind?
Several avenues towards this goal

What to do?We need to develop a more embracing linguistics and cognitive science that address non-discrete phenomena:not

Слайд 201. Start with prosody
Prosody is the aspect of sound code

that is obviously non-discrete
Example: Sandro V. Kodzasov’s analysis of formal

quantity iconically depicting mental quantity
It was lo-ong ago. Oh, tha-at’s the reason.
He just left. That’s clear.
Develop new approaches on the basis of prosody, then apply them to traditional, “segmental” language
1. Start with prosodyProsody is the aspect of sound code  that is obviously non-discreteExample: Sandro V.

Слайд 212. Explore gesticulation
In addition to sound code, there is a

visual code: gesticulation and generally “body language”
Michael Tomasello: in order

to “understand how humans communicate with one another using a language <…> we must first understand how humans communicate with one another using natural gestures”

Когда он ехал по дорóге, он поравнялся с дéвочкой,


(From the materials of Julia Nikolaeva)

Simultaneously: iconic gestures and pointing gestures


2. Explore gesticulationIn addition to sound code, there is a visual code:  gesticulation and generally “body

Слайд 223. Employ mathematics appropriate for the “cognitive matter”
Methodological point
1960s: a

fashion of “mathematical methods” in linguistics
This did not bring much

fruit, primarily because of the non-discreteness effects
Time for another attempt of bringing in more useful kinds of mathematics
Ongoing project: study of non-categorical referential choice
When we mention a person/object, we choose from a set of options, such as a proper name (Kant), a common name (the philosopher), or a reduced form (he)
This choice is not always deterministic: sometimes both Kant and he are appropriate
Probabilistic modelling and machine learning techniques used to simulate human behavior in non-categorical situations
3. Employ mathematics appropriate for the “cognitive matter”Methodological point1960s: a fashion of “mathematical methods” in linguisticsThis did

Слайд 23Conclusion
Just as we invoke scientific thinking, we tend to immediately

turn to discrete analysis
This is why discrete linguistics is so

popular, in spite of the omnipresence and obviousness of non-discrete effects
This may be our inherent bias, or a habit developed in natural sciences, or a cultural preference
But in the case of language and other cognitive processes we do see the limits of the traditional discrete approach
It remains an open question if cognitive scientists are able to eventually overcome the strong bias towards “pure reason” and discrete analysis, or language will remain a Ding an sich
But it is worth trying to circumvent this bias and to seriously explore the focal, non-discrete structure that is in the very core of language and cognition
ConclusionJust as we invoke scientific thinking, we tend to immediately turn to discrete analysisThis is why discrete

Слайд 24The reason why this talk was so philosophical must be

due to Kant’s Geist
Immanuel Kant, lecturing to Russian officers


The reason why this talk was so philosophical must be due to Kant’s Geist Immanuel Kant, lecturing

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