HUMAN ORIGINS AND Why are artists' drawings of ape-like humans FROM :- 191B

:- 191B PATIL SIDDHARAMREDDY

To

PHD SVETLANA SMIRNOVA.
BIOLOGY PROFESSOR
CRIMEAN FEDERAL MEDICAL
UNIVERSITY

anthropogeny was used in the 1839 edition of Hooper’s Medical

DictionarY and was defined as “the study of the generation of man”. The was popularized by Ernst Heinrich Haeckel (1834–1919), a German naturalist and zoologist, in his groundbreaking books, Natural History of Creation
Haeckel was one of the first biologists to publish on evolution. Haeckel used the term Anthropogeny to refer to the study of comparative embryology and defined it as “the history of the evolution of man”. The term changed over time, however, and came to refer to the study of human origins.

societies in the past and present. Social anthropology studies patterns

of behaviour and cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life
Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of Homo sapiens, human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc.

over successive generations.These characteristics are the expressions of genes that

are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Different characteristics tend to exist within any given population as a result of mutation, genetic recombination and other sources of genetic variation. Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.
It is this process of evolution that has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms and molecules.

to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the

evolutionary history of primates—in particular genus Homo—and leading to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism and language, as well as interbreeding with other hominins, which indicate that human evolution was not linear but a web
The study of human evolution involves several scientific disciplines, including physical anthropology, primatology, archaeology, paleontology, neurobiology, ethology, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, embryology and genetics.[6] Genetic studies show that primates diverged from other mammals about 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, and the earliest fossils appear in the Paleocene, around 55 million years ago.

family Hylobatidae some 15–20 million years ago; subfamily Homininae (African

apes) diverged from Ponginae (orangutans) about 14 million years ago; the tribe Hominini (including humans, Australopithecus, and chimpanzees) parted from the tribe Gorillini (gorillas) between 8–9 million years ago; and, in turn, the subtribes Hominina (humans and extinct biped ancestors) and Panina (chimpanzees) separated 4–7 million years ago
Human evolution, the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now-extinct primates. Viewed zoologically, we humans are Homo sapiens, a culture-bearing upright-walking species that lives on the ground and very likely first evolved in Africa about 315,000 years ago.

common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees is characterized by a

number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral changes. The most significant of these adaptations are bipedalism, increased brain size, lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), and decreased sexual dimorphism. The relationship between these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. need Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first occurring in H. erectus
Bipedalism is the basic adaptation of the hominid and is considered the main cause behind a suite of skeletal changes shared by all bipedal hominids. The earliest hominin, of presumably primitive bipedalism, is considered to be either Sahelanthropus[11] or Orrorin, both of which arose some 6 to 7 million years ago. The non-bipedal knuckle-walkers, the gorillas and chimpanzees, diverged from the hominin line over a period covering the same time, so either Sahelanthropus or Orrorin may be our last shared ancestor. Ardipithecus, a full biped, arose approximately 5.6 million years ago

the reduction of the male canine tooth relative to other ape species

(except gibbons) and reduced brow ridges and general robustness of males. Another important physiological change related to sexuality in humans was the evolution of hidden estrus. Humans are the only hominoids in which the female is fertile year round and in which no special signals of fertility are produced by the body (such as genital swelling or overt changes in proceptivity during estrus)
The ulnar opposition—the contact between the thumb and the tip of the little finger of the same hand—is unique to the metabolism , Neanderthals, the Sima de los Huesos hominins and anatomically modern Human metabolism other primates, the thumb is short and unable to touch the little finger. The ulnar opposition facilitates the precision grip and power grip of the human hand, underlying all the skilled manipulations
A number of other changes have also characterized the evolution of humans, among them an increased importance on vision rather than smell; a longer juvenile developmental period and higher infant dependency; a smaller gut; faster basal metabolism Loss of body hair; evolution of sweat glands; a change in the shape of the dental arcade from being u-shaped to being parabolic; development of a chin (found in Homo sapiens alone); development of styloid processes; and the development of a descended larynx.

biological genus to which humans belong, is Latin for “human”.It

was chosen originally by Carl Linnaeus in his classification system.[c] The word “human” is from the Latin humanus, the adjectival form of homo. The Latin “homo” derives from the Indo-European root *dhghem, or “earth”. Linnaeus and other scientists of his time also considered the great apes to be the closest relatives of humans based on morphological and anatomical similarities.
Darwin The possibility of linking humans with earlier apes by descent became clear only after 1859 with the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, in which he argued for the idea of the evolution of new species from earlier ones. Darwin’s book did not address the question of human evolution, saying only that “Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.

the lack of fossil intermediaries. Neanderthal remains were discovered in

a limestone quarry in 1856, three years before the publication of On the Origin of Species, and Neanderthal fossils had been discovered in Gibraltar even earlier, but it was originally claimed that these were human remains of a creature suffering some kind of illness.Despite the 1891 discovery by Eugène Dubois of what is now called Homo erectus at Trinil, Java, it was only in the 1920s when such fossils were discovered in Africa, that intermediate species began to accumulate. In 1925, Raymond Dart described Australopithecus africanus.The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant which was discovered in a cave. The child’s remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocast of the brain.

in East Africa in the regions of the Olduvai Gorge

and Lake Turkana. These searches were carried out by the Leakey family, with Louis Leakey and his wife Mary Leakey, and later their son Richard and daughter-in-law Meave, fossil hunters and paleoanthropologists. From the fossil beds of Olduvai and Lake Turkana they amassed specimens of the early hominins: the australopithecines and Homo species, and even Homo erectus.
These finds cemented Africa as the cradle of humankind. In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Ethiopia emerged as the new hot spot of paleoanthropology after “Lucy”, the most complete fossil member of the species Australopithecus afarensis, was found in 1974 by Donald Johanson near Hadar in the desertic Afar Triangle region of northern Ethiopia. Although the specimen had a small brain, the pelvis and leg bones were almost identical in function to those of modern humans, showing with certainty that these hominins had walked erect. Lucy was classified as a new species, Australopithecus afarensis, which is thought to be more closely related to the genus Homo as a direct ancestor, or as a close relative of an unknown ancestor, than any other known hominid or hominin from this early time range; see terms “hominid” and “hominin”. (The specimen was nicknamed “Lucy” after the Beatles’ song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds”, which was played loudly and repeatedly in the camp during the excavations.) The Afar Triangle area would later yield discovery of many more hominin fossils, particularly those uncovered or described by teams headed by Tim D. White in the 1990s, including Ardipithecus ramidus and Ardipithecus kadabba.

available, there were two dominant models for the dispersal of

modern humans. The multiregional hypothesis proposed that the genus Homo contained only a single interconnected population as it does today (not separate species), and that its evolution took place worldwide continuously over the last couple of million years. This model was proposed in 1988 by Milford H. Wolpoff.In contrast, the “out of Africa” model proposed that modern H. sapiens speciated in Africa recently (that is, approximately 200,000 years ago) and the subsequent migration through Eurasia resulted in the nearly complete replacement of other Homo species. This model has been developed by Chris B. Stringer and Peter Andrews.

based comes from many fields of natural science. The main

source of knowledge about the evolutionary process has traditionally been the fossil record, but since the development of genetics beginning in the 1970s, DNA analysis has come to occupy a place of comparable importance. The studies of ontogeny, phylogeny and especially evolutionary developmental biology of both vertebrates and invertebrates offer considerable insight into the evolution of all life, including how humans evolved. The specific study of the origin and life of humans is anthropology, particularly paleoanthropology which focuses on the study of human prehistory.

were the first groups to split from the line leading

to the hominins, including humans—followed by gorillas (genus Gorilla), and, ultimately, by the chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date between hominin and chimpanzee lineages is placed by some between 4 to 8 million years ago, that is, during the Late Miocene. Speciation, however, appears to have been unusually drawn out. Initial divergence occurred sometime between 7 to 13 million years ago, but ongoing hybridization blurred the separation and delayed complete separation during several millions of years. Patterson (2006) dated the final divergence at 5 to 6 million years ago

materialist conception of history, is a methodology used by some

communist and Marxist historiographers that focuses on human societies and their development through history, arguing that history is the result of material conditions rather than ideals

ancestors were or what they looked like?
From ape to human
Probably

the most common example used to support evolution is the idea that humans evolved from apes. The pictures of a knuckle-walking ape evolving through a series of stages into an upright human being are included in virtually all biology textbooks. And the fossils fill the halls of museums. Yet the evidence, as in the case of the other supposed evidences for evolution, is not as straightforward as it appears.
The first problem with the fossil record is that interpretations are greatly influenced by personal beliefs and prejudices. Scientists often begin with the conviction that human evolution is true and then fit the existing fossils into their preconceived ideas. This is illustrated in the famous example of the "Piltdown Man." In 1912 paleontologist Charles Dawson found some pieces of a human skull and part of an ape-like lower jaw with no teeth in a gravel pit in England. Since scientists had supposed that an earlier ancestor would have a large brain and an ape-like jaw, it was assumed to be the "missing link." Since "Piltdown Man" fit the description so accurately, no one checked to see if the skull and jaw fragments even belonged to the same individual. Later findings demonstrated that the skull was human and the jaw fragments belonged to an orangutan. In fact, the jaw had been chemically treated to make it look like a fossil and the teeth had been deliberately filed down.

to many interpretations as individual specimens can be reconstructed in

many different ways. For example, when National Geographic hired four artists to reconstruct a female character from seven fossil bones found in Africa, they came up with radically different interpretations. The reconstructions varied from a modern African woman to apelike creatures with varied foreheads, jaws and faces. Even though the artists had the exact same fossils they interpreted them in completely different ways.
Conclusion That Human Origins. Why are artists' drawings of ape-like humans used to justify materialistic claims that we are just animals and our existence is a mere accident -- when fossil experts cannot even agree on who our supposed ancestors were or what they looked like?