Lecture 5. Scientific cognition

of scientific cognition
3. Forms of scientific knowledge

activity and its main carrier is science. Science is a

form of spiritual activity of people and a sphere of human cognitive activity aimed at acquiring objective knowledge and applying them in practice.
As a separate spiritual phenomenon and social institution, science appears in the 17th century, in the era of the formation of the capitalist mode of production. From this time on, science begins to develop almost independently.

at developing objective, systematically organized and reason-why knowledge about the

world. It stands out from ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition, associated with the vital activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of the phenomenon.
Epistemology is the doctrine of scientific cognition.

final result (the system of scientific knowledge), but also the

path leading to it, that is, the method. Each science and scientific discipline has not only its object-matter, but also its own peculiar system of methods, conditioned by their theories and the specifics of the object-matters of their research.

certain rules, methods, norms of cognition and action.
The method

orientates the subject in solving a specific problems, in achieving a certain result in a certain field of activity.
The method disciplines the search for truth, the correct method allows you to save forces and time, move to the goal in the shortest possible way.

knowledge systems, i.e. theory of the method, as well as

this is a specific sequence of techniques for obtaining knowledge. Socio-cultural basis for the origin of methodology is the emergence of an orientation toward useful science, to ensure a sustainable increase in knowledge.
The basic variants of the early methodology are the inductive method of Bacon and the deductive method of Descartes.

of thinking;
General scientific methods;
Specific scientific methods;
Special techniques.

General philosophical methods existing

as abstract principles of thinking. These include dialectical and metaphysical methods.
General methods of thinking - abstraction, induction-deduction, analysis-synthesis, analogy;

axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive methods.
They act as an intermediate methodology

between philosophy and the fundamental principles of the private sciences.
General scientific terms include such concepts as information, model, system, structure, function, element, optimality, probability, nonlinearity, instability, self-organization, etc.
The general scientific principles and approaches include: systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic;

individual sciences. These are the methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry,

biology, and social (humanitarian) sciences. In recent decades, methods of interdisciplinary research have become widespread;
Special techniques.

basic levels –
(1) empirical and (2) theoretical.
At the empirical

level, sensory cognition prevails. The investigated object is reflected mainly from its external connections and manifestations. Any empirical research begins with the collection, systematization and generalization of facts.
The concept of "fact" (from the Latin factorum - made, accomplished) expresses some fragment of reality or cognition, knowledge of which must have certainty.

observable and experimental data, their systematization are characteristic features of

empirical cognition, which is directed directly at the object under study.
It is mastered with the help of such methods and means as observation and experiment (these basic methods), comparison, measurement.

based on the data of scientific observation. The scientific fact

arises as a result of a very complex processing of observations, their reasoning, understanding, interpretation.

the phenomena of objective reality,
2. Description - fixing by means

of natural or artificial language information about objects,
3. Measurement - comparison of objects by some similar properties or sides.
4. Comparison is a simultaneous correlative study and evaluation of properties or attributes common to two or more objects.

which allows you to restore the course of events with

the repetition of conditions.
The experiment is not always suitable for studying the objects of the microworld and megaworld. Therefore, in modern science a special role is assigned to modeling.

construction and study of the model makes it possible to

identify and analyze the regularities of the process under study without interference in the surrounding world.

and patterns, comprehended by the rational processing of empirical knowledge.

This processing is carried out by a higher-order abstraction with the aid of such mental devices as abstraction, generalization, analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of

reality.
2. Axiomatization - the construction of theories on the basis of axioms - assertions, the proof of the truth of which is not required.

deductively related hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are

deduced.
4. Ascent from the abstract to the concrete - the movement of scientific thought from the initial abstraction to the result - a holistic reproduction in the theory of the object under study.

between them is conditional and mobile, they pass into each

other.
General criteria for evaluation of methods:
Scientific methods are evaluated according to the following criteria:
the scientific nature of the method,
the effectiveness of the method,
economy,
simplicity and reliability,
admissibility
security.

is in the form of a scientific problem, a hypothesis,

a theory, as well as principles, laws, a paradigm.
The main, key points in the construction and development of knowledge include the bundle "scientific problem - hypothesis - theory."
A scientific problem is a scientific task that has already been formed, but not solved or not known.

of an object that needs to be tested by practice.
The

theory is a practically confirmed hypothesis, a relatively harmonious knowledge of the process.
The theory is the most developed form of scientific knowledge. The key element of the theory is the law, therefore the theory can be regarded as a system of laws expressing the essence of the object under study.