Chapter 40

Содержание

1. Chapter 40
2. Overview: Diverse Forms, Common ChallengesAnatomy is the
3. How does a jackrabbit keep from overheating?
4. Animal form and function are correlated at
5. Physical Constraints on Animal Size and ShapeThe
6. Convergent evolution in fast swimmers(a) Tuna(b) Penguin(c) Seal
7. Exchange with the EnvironmentAn animal’s size and
8. Contact with the environmentExchange0.15 mm(a) Single cell1.5 mm(b) Two layers of cellsExchangeExchangeMouthGastrovascularcavity
9. Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan
10. Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals 0.5
11. In vertebrates, the space between cells is
12. Organ Systems
13. Different tissues have different structures that are
14. Epithelial Tissue - Covering & LiningEpithelial tissue
15. Structure and function in animal tissuesEpithelial TissueCuboidalepitheliumSimplecolumnarepitheliumPseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepitheliumStratifiedsquamousepitheliumSimplesquamousepithelium
16. Connective TissueConnective tissue mainly binds and
17. There are three types of connective tissue
18. In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine
19. Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and
20. Connective TissueCollagenous fiberLooseconnectivetissueElastic fiber120 µmCartilageChondrocytes100 µmChondroitinsulfateAdiposetissueFat droplets150 µmWhite blood cells55 µmPlasmaRed bloodcellsBloodNucleiFibrousconnectivetissue30 µmOsteonBoneCentral canal700 µm
21. Muscle TissueMuscle tissue consists of
22. Muscle Tissue50 µmSkeletalmuscleMultiplenucleiMuscle fiberSarcomere100 µmSmoothmuscleCardiac muscle NucleusMusclefibers25 µmNucleusIntercalateddisk
23. Nervous TissueNervous tissue senses stimuli and
24. Glial cellsNervous Tissue15 µmDendritesCell bodyAxonNeuronAxonsBlood vessel40 µm
25. DendritesCell bodyAxon40 µmNeuron
26. Coordination and ControlControl and coordination within a
27. SignalingStimulusHormoneEndocrinecellSignal travelseverywherevia the bloodstream.BloodvesselResponse(a) Signaling by hormonesStimulusNeuronAxonSignalSignal travelsalong axon toa specificlocation.SignalAxonsResponse (b) Signaling by neurons
28. The nervous system transmits information between specific
29. StimulusNeuronAxonSignalSignal travelsalong axon toa specificlocation.SignalAxonsResponse Signaling by neurons
30. Feedback control loops maintain the internal environment
31. River otter (temperature regulator)Largemouth bass(temperature conformer)Body temperature (°C)01010202030304040Ambient (environmental) temperature (ºC)
32. HomeostasisOrganisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady
33. Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the
34. negative feedbackResponse:Heater turnedoffStimulus:Control center(thermostat)reads too hotRoomtemperaturedecreasesSetpoint:20ºCRoomtemperatureincreasesStimulus:Control center(thermostat)reads too coldResponse:Heater turnedon
35. Feedback Loops in HomeostasisThe dynamic equilibrium of
36. Alterations in HomeostasisSet points and normal ranges
37. Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function,
38. In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in
39. (a) A walrus, an endotherm(b) A lizard, an ectotherm
40. Variation in Body TemperatureThe body temperature of
41. Heat exchange between an organism and its environmentRadiationEvaporationConvectionConduction
42. Mammalian integumentary systemEpidermisDermisHypodermisAdipose tissueBlood vesselsHairSweatporeMuscleNerveSweatglandOil glandHair follicle
43. Five general adaptations help animals thermoregulate:InsulationCirculatory adaptationsCooling
44. InsulationInsulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation
45. Regulation of blood flow near the body
46. The arrangement of blood vessels in many
47. Countercurrent heat exchangersCanada gooseBottlenosedolphinArteryArteryVeinVeinBlood flow33º35ºC27º30º18º20º10º9º
48. Cooling by Evaporative Heat LossMany types of
49. Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral responses
50. Adjusting Metabolic Heat ProductionSome animals can regulate
51. RESULTSContractions per minuteO2 consumption (mL O2/hr) per kg00202015105253035406080100120A Burmese python generates heat while incubating eggs.
52. Birds and mammals can vary their insulation
53. Hypothalamus: thermoregulationSweat glands secrete sweat, which evaporates,
54. Energy requirements are related to animal size,
55. Energy Allocation and UseAnimals harvest chemical energy
56. Bioenergetics of an animalOrganic moleculesin foodExternalenvironmentAnimalbodyDigestion andabsorptionNutrient moleculesin body cellsCarbonskeletonsCellularrespirationATPHeatEnergy lostin fecesEnergy lost innitrogenouswasteHeatBiosynthesisHeatHeatCellularwork
57. Metabolic rate is the amount of energy
58. Minimum Metabolic Rate and ThermoregulationBasal metabolic rate
59. Metabolic rates are affected by many factors
60. Relationship of Metabolic Rate to
61. Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms
62. Energy budgets for four animals
63. Torpor and Energy ConservationTorpor is a physiological
64. Body temperature and metabolism during hibernation in
65. Estivation, or summer torpor, enables animals to
66. ReviewHomeostasisStimulus:Perturbation/stressResponse/effectorControl centerSensor/receptor
67. You should now be able to:Distinguish among
68. Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine
69. Скачать презентанцию

Overview: Diverse Forms, Common ChallengesAnatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism.Physiology is the study of the biological functions an organism performs. The comparative study of animals reveals

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Слайд 1Chapter 40
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

Слайд 2Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
Anatomy is the study of the

biological form of an organism.
Physiology is the study of the

biological functions an organism performs.
The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated.

Overview: Diverse Forms, Common ChallengesAnatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism.Physiology is the

Слайд 3How does a jackrabbit keep from overheating?

Слайд 4Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of

organization
Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with

its environment.
Many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the genome.

Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organizationSize and shape affect the way an

Слайд 5Physical Constraints on Animal Size and Shape
The ability to perform

certain actions depends on an animal’s shape, size, and environment.
Evolutionary

convergence reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge.
Physical laws impose constraints on animal size and shape.

Physical Constraints on Animal Size and ShapeThe ability to perform certain actions depends on an animal’s shape,

Слайд 6Convergent evolution in fast swimmers
(a) Tuna
(b) Penguin
(c) Seal

Слайд 7Exchange with the Environment
An animal’s size and shape directly affect

how it exchanges energy and materials with its surroundings.
Exchange occurs

as substances dissolved in the aqueous medium diffuse and are transported across the cells’ plasma membranes.
A single-celled protist living in water has a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to service its entire volume of cytoplasm.

Exchange with the EnvironmentAn animal’s size and shape directly affect how it exchanges energy and materials with

Слайд 8Contact with the environment
Exchange
0.15 mm
(a) Single cell
1.5 mm
(b) Two layers

of cells
Exchange
Exchange
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity

Слайд 9Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan have body walls

that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials.
More

complex organisms have highly folded internal surfaces for exchanging materials.

Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan have body walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating

Слайд 10Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
0.5 cm
Nutrients
Digestive
system
Lining of small intestine
Mouth
Food
External

environment
Animal
body
CO2
O2
Circulatory
system
Heart
Respiratory
system
Cells
Interstitial
fluid
Excretory
system
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste)
Kidney tubules
10 µm
50 µm
Lung tissue
Blood

Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals 0.5 cmNutrientsDigestivesystemLining of small intestineMouthFoodExternal environmentAnimalbodyCO2O2CirculatorysystemHeartRespiratorysystemCellsInterstitialfluidExcretorysystemAnusUnabsorbedmatter (feces)Metabolic waste products(nitrogenous waste)Kidney tubules10

Слайд 11In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with interstitial

fluid, which allows for the movement of material into and

out of cells.
A complex body plan helps an animal in a variable environment to maintain a relatively stable internal environment.
Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions.
Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems.

Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans

In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with interstitial fluid, which allows for the movement of

Слайд 12Organ Systems

Слайд 13Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their

functions.
Tissues are classified into four main categories: epithelial, connective, muscle,

and nervous.

Tissue Structure and Function

Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their functions.Tissues are classified into four main categories:

Слайд 14Epithelial Tissue - Covering & Lining
Epithelial tissue covers the outside

of the body and lines the organs and cavities within

the body.
It contains cells that are closely joined.
The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles).

Epithelial Tissue - Covering & LiningEpithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines the organs

Слайд 15 Structure and function in animal tissues
Epithelial Tissue
Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple
columnar
epithelium
Pseudostratified
ciliated
columnar
epithelium
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Simple
squamous
epithelium

Structure and function in animal tissuesEpithelial TissueCuboidalepitheliumSimplecolumnarepitheliumPseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepitheliumStratifiedsquamousepitheliumSimplesquamousepithelium

Слайд 16 Connective Tissue
Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues.
It

contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix.
The matrix

consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation.

Connective TissueConnective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues.It contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an

Слайд 17There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made

of protein:
Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility.
Elastic fibers stretch and

snap back to their original length.
Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues.

There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of protein:Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility.Elastic

Слайд 18In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six

major types of connective tissue:
Loose connective tissue binds epithelia

to underlying tissues and holds organs in place.
Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material.
Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attach muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints.

Connective Tissue

Слайд 19Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel.
Blood is composed

of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma.
Bone is

mineralized and forms the skeleton.

Connective Tissue

Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel.Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in

Слайд 20Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiber
Loose
connective
tissue
Elastic fiber
120 µm
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
100 µm
Chondroitin
sulfate
Adipose
tissue
Fat droplets
150 µm
White blood cells
55

µm
Plasma
Red blood
cells
Blood
Nuclei
Fibrous
connective
tissue
30 µm
Osteon
Bone
Central canal
700 µm

Connective TissueCollagenous fiberLooseconnectivetissueElastic fiber120 µmCartilageChondrocytes100 µmChondroitinsulfateAdiposetissueFat droplets150 µmWhite blood cells55 µmPlasmaRed bloodcellsBloodNucleiFibrousconnectivetissue30 µmOsteonBoneCentral canal700 µm

Слайд 21 Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consists of long cells called

muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals.
It is

divided in the vertebrate body into three types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is attached to bones and is responsible for voluntary movement.
Smooth muscle mainly lines internal organs and is responsible for involuntary body activities.
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart.

Muscle TissueMuscle tissue consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to

Слайд 22Muscle Tissue
50 µm
Skeletal
muscle
Multiple
nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
Smooth
muscle
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
Nucleus
Intercalated
disk

Muscle Tissue50 µmSkeletalmuscleMultiplenucleiMuscle fiberSarcomere100 µmSmoothmuscleCardiac muscle NucleusMusclefibers25 µmNucleusIntercalateddisk

Слайд 23 Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout

the animal.
Nervous tissue contains:
Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve

impulses.
Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons.

Nervous TissueNervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal.Nervous tissue contains:Neurons, or nerve cells,

Слайд 24Glial cells
Nervous Tissue
15 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
40 µm

Слайд 25Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
40 µm
Neuron

Слайд 26Coordination and Control
Control and coordination within a body depend on

the endocrine system and the nervous system.
The endocrine system transmits

chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood.
A hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body.
Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long-lasting effects.

Coordination and ControlControl and coordination within a body depend on the endocrine system and the nervous system.The

Слайд 27Signaling
Stimulus
Hormone
Endocrine
cell
Signal travels
everywhere
via the
bloodstream.
Blood
vessel
Response
(a) Signaling by hormones
Stimulus
Neuron
Axon
Signal
Signal travels
along axon to
a

specific
location.
Signal
Axons
Response
(b) Signaling by neurons

SignalingStimulusHormoneEndocrinecellSignal travelseverywherevia the bloodstream.BloodvesselResponse(a) Signaling by hormonesStimulusNeuronAxonSignalSignal travelsalong axon toa specificlocation.SignalAxonsResponse (b) Signaling by neurons

Слайд 28The nervous system transmits information between specific locations.
The information conveyed

depends on a signal’s pathway, not the type of signal.
Nerve

signal transmission is very fast.
Nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells.

The nervous system transmits information between specific locations.The information conveyed depends on a signal’s pathway, not the

Слайд 29Stimulus
Neuron
Axon
Signal
Signal travels
along axon to
a specific
location.
Signal
Axons
Response
Signaling by neurons

Слайд 30Feedback control loops maintain the internal environment in many animals
Animals

manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the

external environment.
A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation.
A conformer allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.

Feedback control loops maintain the internal environment in many animalsAnimals manage their internal environment by regulating or

Слайд 31River otter (temperature regulator)
Largemouth bass
(temperature conformer)
Body temperature (°C)
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
Ambient (environmental) temperature

(ºC)

River otter (temperature regulator)Largemouth bass(temperature conformer)Body temperature (°C)01010202030304040Ambient (environmental) temperature (ºC)

Слайд 32Homeostasis
Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal

balance regardless of external environment.
In humans, body temperature, blood pH,

and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level.

HomeostasisOrganisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment.In humans, body

Слайд 33Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment.
For a

given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve

as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response.
The response returns the variable to the set point. Negative Feedback acts to reverse a trend… To maintain the variable within a narrow range.

Mechanisms of Homeostasis

Слайд 34negative feedback
Response:
Heater
turned
off
Stimulus:
Control center
(thermostat)
reads too hot
Room
temperature
decreases
Set
point:
20ºC
Room
temperature
increases
Stimulus:
Control center
(thermostat)
reads too cold
Response:
Heater
turned
on

negative feedbackResponse:Heater turnedoffStimulus:Control center(thermostat)reads too hotRoomtemperaturedecreasesSetpoint:20ºCRoomtemperatureincreasesStimulus:Control center(thermostat)reads too coldResponse:Heater turnedon

Слайд 35Feedback Loops in Homeostasis
The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained

by negative feedback, which helps to return a variable to

either a normal range or a set point.
Most homeostatic control systems function by negative feedback, where buildup of the end product shuts the system off.
Positive feedback loops occur in animals, but do not usually contribute to homeostasis. Instead, positive feedback escalates a trend.

Feedback Loops in HomeostasisThe dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback, which helps to return

Слайд 36Alterations in Homeostasis
Set points and normal ranges can change with

age or show cyclic variation.
Homeostasis can adjust to changes in

external environment, a process called acclimatization.

Alterations in HomeostasisSet points and normal ranges can change with age or show cyclic variation.Homeostasis can adjust

Слайд 37Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior
Thermoregulation is

the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within

a tolerable range.
Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles

Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behaviorThermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an

Слайд 38In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while

endotherms are active at a greater range of external temperatures.
Endothermy

is more energetically expensive than ectothermy.

In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while endotherms are active at a greater range

Слайд 39(a) A walrus, an endotherm
(b) A lizard, an ectotherm

Слайд 40Variation in Body Temperature
The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies

with its environment, while that of a homeotherm is relatively

constant.
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain:
Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes: conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation.
Heat regulation in mammals often involves the integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails.

Variation in Body TemperatureThe body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its environment, while that of a

Слайд 41 Heat exchange between an organism and its environment
Radiation
Evaporation
Convection
Conduction

Слайд 42Mammalian integumentary system
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis
Adipose tissue
Blood vessels
Hair
Sweat
pore
Muscle
Nerve
Sweat
gland
Oil gland
Hair follicle

Mammalian integumentary systemEpidermisDermisHypodermisAdipose tissueBlood vesselsHairSweatporeMuscleNerveSweatglandOil glandHair follicle

Слайд 43Five general adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
Insulation
Circulatory adaptations
Cooling by evaporative heat

loss
Behavioral responses
Adjusting metabolic heat production.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.,

publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Five general adaptations help animals thermoregulate:InsulationCirculatory adaptationsCooling by evaporative heat lossBehavioral responsesAdjusting metabolic heat production.Copyright © 2008

Слайд 44 Insulation
Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and

birds.
Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat flow between an

animal and its environment.

InsulationInsulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds.Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat

Слайд 45Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects

thermoregulation.
Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter the amount of

blood flowing between the body core and the skin.
In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss.
In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss.

Circulatory Adaptations

Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation.Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter

Слайд 46The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and

birds allows for countercurrent exchange.
Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat between

fluids flowing in opposite directions.
Countercurrent heat exchangers are an important mechanism for reducing heat loss.

The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allows for countercurrent exchange.Countercurrent heat exchangers

Слайд 47Countercurrent heat exchangers
Canada goose
Bottlenose
dolphin
Artery
Artery
Vein
Vein
Blood flow
33º
35ºC
27º
30º
18º
20º
10º
9º

Слайд 48Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
Many types of animals lose heat

through evaporation of water in sweat = evaporative cooling.
Panting increases

the cooling effect in birds and many mammals.
Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down.

Cooling by Evaporative Heat LossMany types of animals lose heat through evaporation of water in sweat =

Слайд 49Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral responses to control body

temperature.
Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that minimize or maximize absorption

of solar heat.

Behavioral Responses

Слайд 50Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
Some animals can regulate body temperature by

adjusting their rate of metabolic heat production.
Heat production is increased

by muscle activity such as moving or shivering.
Some ectotherms can also shiver to increase body temperature.

Adjusting Metabolic Heat ProductionSome animals can regulate body temperature by adjusting their rate of metabolic heat production.Heat

Слайд 51RESULTS
Contractions per minute
O2 consumption (mL O2/hr) per kg
0
0
20
20
15
10
5
25
30
35
40
60
80
100
120
A Burmese python

generates heat while incubating eggs.

RESULTSContractions per minuteO2 consumption (mL O2/hr) per kg00202015105253035406080100120A Burmese python generates heat while incubating eggs.

Слайд 52Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to

seasonal temperature changes.
When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce

“antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells.
Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms.
Fever is the result of a change to the set point for a biological thermostat.

Acclimatization in Thermoregulation

Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes. When temperatures are subzero,

Слайд 53Hypothalamus: thermoregulation
Sweat glands secrete sweat, which evaporates, cooling the body.
Thermostat

in hypothalamus activates cooling mechanisms.
Blood vessels in skin dilate: capillaries

fill; heat radiates from skin.

Increased body temperature

Decreased body temperature

Thermostat in hypothalamus activates warming mechanisms.

Blood vessels in skin constrict, reducing heat loss.

Skeletal muscles contract; shivering generates heat.

Body temperature increases; thermostat shuts off warming mechanisms.

Homeostasis: Internal temperature of 36–38°C

Body temperature decreases; thermostat shuts off cooling mechanisms.

Hypothalamus: thermoregulationSweat glands secrete sweat, which evaporates, cooling the body.Thermostat in hypothalamus activates cooling mechanisms.Blood vessels in

Слайд 54Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
Bioenergetics

is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an

animal.
It determines how much food an animal needs and relates to an animal’s size, activity, and environment.

Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environmentBioenergetics is the overall flow and transformation of

Слайд 55Energy Allocation and Use
Animals harvest chemical energy from food.
Energy-containing

molecules from food are usually used to make ATP, which

powers cellular work.
After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis.
Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes.

Energy Allocation and UseAnimals harvest chemical energy from food. Energy-containing molecules from food are usually used to

Слайд 56Bioenergetics of an animal
Organic molecules
in food
External
environment
Animal
body
Digestion and
absorption
Nutrient molecules
in body cells
Carbon
skeletons
Cellular
respiration
ATP
Heat
Energy

lost
in feces
Energy lost in
nitrogenous
waste

Heat
Biosynthesis
Heat
Heat
Cellular
work

Bioenergetics of an animalOrganic moleculesin foodExternalenvironmentAnimalbodyDigestion andabsorptionNutrient moleculesin body cellsCarbonskeletonsCellularrespirationATPHeatEnergy lostin fecesEnergy lost innitrogenouswasteHeatBiosynthesisHeatHeatCellularwork

Слайд 57Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses

in a unit of time.
One way to measure it is

to determine the amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced.

Quantifying Energy Use

Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.One way to

Слайд 58Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the

metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable”

temperature.
Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature.
Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and nonstressed animal.
Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size.

Minimum Metabolic Rate and ThermoregulationBasal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest

Слайд 59Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an

animal is an endotherm or ectotherm.
Two of these factors are

size and activity.
Metabolic rate is inversely related to body size among similar animals.
The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal.

Influences on Metabolic Rate

Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an endotherm or ectotherm.Two of

Слайд 60Relationship of Metabolic Rate to Body Size
Elephant
Horse
Human
Sheep
Dog
Cat
Rat
Ground squirrel
Mouse
Harvest mouse
Shrew
Body mass

(kg) (log scale)
BMR (L O2/hr) (Iog scale)
10–3
10–2
10–2
10–1
10–1
10
10
1
1
102
102
103
103
(a) Relationship of BMR

to body size

Shrew

Mouse

Harvest mouse

Sheep

Rat

Cat

Dog

Human

Horse

Elephant

BMR (L O2/hr) (per kg)

Ground squirrel

Body mass (kg) (log scale)

10–3

10–2

10–1

102

103

(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass to body size

Relationship of Metabolic Rate to Body Size ElephantHorseHumanSheepDogCatRatGround squirrelMouseHarvest mouseShrewBody mass (kg) (log scale)BMR (L

Слайд 61Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms and ectotherms.
In general,

the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is inversely

related to the duration of the activity.
Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment.
Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth, and reproduction.

Activity, Metabolic Rate, and Energy Budgets

Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms and ectotherms.In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can

Слайд 62 Energy budgets for four animals
Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr)
60-kg

female human
from temperate climate
800,000
Basal
(standard)
metabolism
Reproduction
Thermoregulation
Growth
Activity
340,000
4-kg male Adélie penguin
from Antarctica (brooding)
4,000
0.025-kg female

deer mouse
from temperate
North America

8,000

4-kg female eastern
indigo snake

Endotherms

Ectotherm

Energy budgets for four animals Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr)60-kg female humanfrom temperate climate800,000Basal(standard)metabolismReproductionThermoregulationGrowthActivity340,0004-kg male Adélie

Слайд 63Torpor and Energy Conservation
Torpor is a physiological state in which

activity is low and metabolism decreases.
Torpor enables animals to

save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions.
Hibernation is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity.

Torpor and Energy ConservationTorpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases. Torpor

Слайд 64Body temperature and metabolism during hibernation in ground

squirrels

Additional metabolism that would be
necessary to stay active in winter

Actual
metabolism

Arousals

Body
temperature

Outside
temperature

Burrow
temperature

Metabolic rate
(kcal per day)

Temperature (°C)

June

August

October

December

February

April

–15

–10

–5

100

200

Body temperature and metabolism during hibernation in ground

Слайд 65Estivation, or summer torpor, enables animals to survive long periods

of high temperatures and scarce water supplies.
Daily torpor is exhibited

by many small mammals and birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns.

Estivation, or summer torpor, enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies.Daily

Слайд 66Review
Homeostasis
Stimulus:
Perturbation/stress
Response/effector
Control center
Sensor/receptor

Слайд 67You should now be able to:
Distinguish among the following sets

of terms: collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers; regulator and conformer;

positive and negative feedback; basal and standard metabolic rates; torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor.
Relate structure with function and identify diagrams of the following animal tissues: epithelial, connective tissue (six types), muscle tissue (three types), and nervous tissue.

You should now be able to:Distinguish among the following sets of terms: collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers;

Слайд 68Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems.
Define thermoregulation and

explain how endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets.
Describe how

a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal body.
Define bioenergetics and biosynthesis.
Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.

Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems.Define thermoregulation and explain how endotherms and ectotherms manage their

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Chapter 40

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Слайд 1Chapter 40Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

Слайд 2Overview: Diverse Forms, Common ChallengesAnatomy is the study of the

biological form of an organism.Physiology is the study of the

Слайд 3How does a jackrabbit keep from overheating?

Слайд 4Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of

organizationSize and shape affect the way an animal interacts with

Слайд 5Physical Constraints on Animal Size and ShapeThe ability to perform

certain actions depends on an animal’s shape, size, and environment.Evolutionary

Слайд 6Convergent evolution in fast swimmers(a) Tuna(b) Penguin(c) Seal

Слайд 7Exchange with the EnvironmentAn animal’s size and shape directly affect

how it exchanges energy and materials with its surroundings.Exchange occurs

Слайд 8Contact with the environmentExchange0.15 mm(a) Single cell1.5 mm(b) Two layers

of cellsExchangeExchangeMouthGastrovascularcavity

Слайд 9Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan have body walls

that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials.More

Слайд 10Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals 0.5 cmNutrientsDigestivesystemLining of small intestineMouthFoodExternal

environmentAnimalbodyCO2O2CirculatorysystemHeartRespiratorysystemCellsInterstitialfluidExcretorysystemAnusUnabsorbedmatter (feces)Metabolic waste products(nitrogenous waste)Kidney tubules10 µm50 µmLung tissueBlood

Слайд 11In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with interstitial

fluid, which allows for the movement of material into and

Слайд 12Organ Systems

Слайд 13Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their

functions.Tissues are classified into four main categories: epithelial, connective, muscle,

Слайд 14Epithelial Tissue - Covering & LiningEpithelial tissue covers the outside

of the body and lines the organs and cavities within

Слайд 15 Structure and function in animal tissuesEpithelial TissueCuboidalepitheliumSimplecolumnarepitheliumPseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepitheliumStratifiedsquamousepitheliumSimplesquamousepithelium

Слайд 16 Connective TissueConnective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues.It

contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix.The matrix

Слайд 17There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made

of protein:Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility.Elastic fibers stretch and