Modern English Lexicology

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Links with Other Linguistic Disciplines
Lexicology (Gr. lexis ‘word’ and logos

‘learning’). The subject-matter of L. – the word and its properties as the main unit of language. Word + word equivalents (ready-made set expressions) make up the vocabulary of a language.
Is word a nominative or communicative unit?

concepts etc.
Referential (refers to things, objects etc.)
Deictic (pointing at

smth.)
Representational
Communicative?(Yes, if it is a one-word sentence)
Word – a two-faceted unit:

Word
language unit language @ speech unit
smallest, indivisible, divisible into morphemes
not autonomous autonomous (can occur
in speech)
part of the word part of word combination
and free word-group

(morphological, synthetic, semantic)
word combinations (set expressions)
functions
spelling
sound form (pronunciation)
grammatical valence (being

a notional or auxiliary part of sentence)

description of vocabulary;
regularities of evolvement, development and

functioning;
4) semantic analysis of the word, components of meaning;
5) word building, morphemic structure and derivational potential;
6) classification of words;
word as a structure and system;
combinability of words, free and set word groups (idioms);
classification of words;
how words are kept in our memory (in association? access to words on the whole or to its parts?) etc.

with the evolution of word-stock, origin, change and development of

words, linguistic and nonlinguistic factors modifying their structure, meaning and usage);
synchronic: makes the focus of descriptive lexicology (deals with the vocabulary at a given stage, with morphological and semantic structures of words) (first distinguished by the Swiss philologist F. de Saussure);
structural: word as a morphological structure (morphemes, allomorphs, productive/nonproductive, etymology of morphemes), synthetic structure (word formation: one-root words, compound words, derivatives, derivational compounds) @ semantic structure (semantic changes, transformation of meanings, metaphor, metonymy, polysemy);
systemic (word as a system): vocabulary (native and loan words), lexico-semantic groups (parts of speech), semantic fields, thematic groups, morphological groups (word families, e.g. dog-doggish-doglike etc.)

are various according to:
grammar
structural
morphological
semantic
stylistic
territorial and other properties
f) notional

– auxiliary words;
g) word-families – ‘гнізда слів’

linearly ordered and depend on context, i.e. a stretch of

speech sufficient to determine the meaning of a polysemantic word. SR are studied by contextual, distributional, transformational and other types of analysis);
Paradigmatic (PR between words are vertically ordered. PR determine the vocabulary system and deal with a) interdependence of elements within words and b) interdependence of words within the vocabulary.

of the gr.form (colours, advices - ‘info’, customs, damages –

‘compensation’, tights)
Word building via conversion – word has other gr. paradigm: look - to look, mother – to mother
Gr. context becomes valid for the meaning:
She took a book (V+N)
She took to thinking/travelling (V+Gerund)
She took me to be asleep (V+ obj.with he Infinitive)
You were late. I took it. (V+ Pron.)
BUT: to smoke a cigarette
to smoke fish (meat)
the table is round
the table is rich
Flying planes can be dangerous
( meaning is ambiguous, Gr. Context here is powerless).

– object , )
I can’t eat anything –

I can’t eat anything
a ‘dancing ‘girl (Participle I) – a ‘dancing girl “dancer”
length (beach - bitch, seat - sit)
voiced/voiceless consonants (said – sat, head - hat)
Intonation (You are too clever – with positive / negative connotation)
with Stylistics for it studies lexicological problems of meaning, synonymy, differentiation of words according to the sphere of communication

of combinatory analysis
Method of contextual analysis
Method of constituent analysis
Method of

derivational analysis
Method of morphemic analysis
Method of IC and UC constituents
Method of synchronic and diachronic analysis
Method of SA (speech act) аналіз
Method of frame analysis

on the idea that opposition is possible only if there

are similarities and differences between its components. Similarities – for doing comparisons, differences – for contrasting and finding out differentiating features. Hence any opposition has a distinguishing feature.
:: - a sign of opposition
Types of opposition:
binary: availability/ unavailability of the distinguishing feature
gradual : members differ in the degree of intensity: affect-torment-torture (різний ступінь інтенсивності страждання);
Equipollent: quality differences, e.g. kid ‘козеня’ :: kid ‘лайка’ (шкіра) – (a case of metonymy)
kid ‘козеня’:: kid ‘дитина, маля’ - (metaphore)
girl :: maiden (poetic) :: lass (Scot.) – stylistic synonyms
The method is effective for classifying words.

word, its combinability with other words. Classes of words are

marked by letters ( make up distributional formulas).
make+N - make a coat
make+(the)+N+ V - make the machine go;
make + A - make sure
make+ A+N+for+N - make a good wife for him

Distributional formulas are effective for classifying examples, revealing variations, functioning, combinability.
Widely used in Lexicography (Hornby) and Applied Linguistics (Palmer, Perebiynis)

by Ru. Katsnelson, Stepanova, Leykina
VA – combinatory ability to enter

into relations with other words in sentence.

Monovalent words: fall, drown ( cf.: Ukr.падати, тонути)
Divalent words: to find, to catch (Ukr. знаходити, ловити)
Multivalent words: to give, to present (Ukr. давати, дарувати)

Is applied in word-building, discovering interference of denotative and connotative shades of meaning.
Types: inner (in word formation) and outer (word valency).

and utterance are situationally and socially dependent ”.
Types of

context: Lexical,
Synthetic
Morphemic
Mixed
CA takes into account the setting, speech situation, social roles, background knowledge of speakers

relations between words. Componential analysis – on paradigmatic relations in

the system of language. This is the method of revealing the semantics of words.
Seme – semantic component of the word, elementary component of meaning of the word.
The founders of CA – American anthropologist F. Goodenough and W. Laundsberry (on Amerindian kinship terms);
The followers– G. Kartz, G. Fodor, E. Nida, G. Lakoff, Y. Apresyan, I. Arnold. Y. Karaulov and others.
The Principle of CA – in Thesaurus dictionaries (words are arranged according to the meaning and thematic groups).

is easily distinguished by native speakers of English, e.g. hum

– ‘a continuous murmuring sound’ has two sememes: [sound] and [continuance], in its turn murmur– ‘a low continuous sound, vague or indistinct’ gives two more sememes [not loud] and [not clearly]. All in all – 4 semes
Hierarchy of semes:
– Classeme – categorial seme
– Hyperseme – thematic seme
– Marker – descriptive seem
– Distinguisher – identifying seme, e.g.
Spinster: ‘never married’ – distinguisher, ‘woman’ – marker, noun] – seme of category

of nomination (theory of word-formation and morphemics)
Speaker: Makes synthesis, creates

new word on the given basis.
Listener: Analyses the components of words and decodes them. DS – position of speaker, MA – position of listener
DS and МА - one object but different aims.DS – analysis of word building structure: affixation, conversion etc. МА – morphemic structure (IC, UC)

stage of development, is based on the comparison and contrast

with other lexical units of the same lexical system for finding out similarities and differences, for finding the place of the word and its components in this system (e.g. its morphological segmentation and comparison of the affixational morpheme with the root morpheme as a derivational and productive stem).
DА – word on different stages of its development (e.g. division of the word on the earlier stage of its development,its etymology: ill-tempered (e.g. Scan. illr ‘bad’ + Lat. tempero ’to cool, to mix’ + Eng. – ed )

be taken to study etymology of English vocabulary: synchronic or

diachronic?

words of Indo-European stock
Native

words
words of Common Germanic
stock
A native word is of Anglo-Saxon origin brought into English in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes (the Angles, Saxons @ Jutes)

(Germ. Sonne, Icelandic sol, Lat. sol, Rus. солнце, Ukr.

сонце); "moon“ (Germ. Mond, Lat. mens, Gr. Mene, Rus. месяц, Ukr. місяць);
b) names of natural phenomena @ substances: "wind" (Germ. Wind, Ukr. віmep; "water” (Germ. Wasser, Ukr. вода, Gr. hydra, Lat. Unda);
c) words expressing close family relations: "father" (Germ. Vater, Gr/Lat. pater, Sanskrit pitar), "mother“(Germ.Mutter, Ukr. мати, Lat. mater), "brother“ (Germ. Bruder; Ukr. брат, Latin frater); "sister“ (Germ.Schwester, Ukr/Rus. сестра , Lat. soror);
d) names of people & some parts of the body: "Man" (Germ. Mann, Sanskrit -Mann); "nose" (Germ. Nase, Rus/Ukr. нoc/ніс, Lat. nasus);
e) names of some animals: "mouse" (Germ. Maus, Rus. мышь, Lat. mus);
f) some numerals: ”one” (Germ. ein; Ukr/Rus.один, Latin unum, "two" (Germ. Zwei, Ukr/Rus. два, Lat. duo), "three“(Germ.Drei, Rus. Ukr/Rus.Три, Lat. tres);
g) names of some kinds of trees and the word "tree" itself (Ukr/Rus. дерево, Gr. drus, Sanskrit dru ).

Words of Common Germanic Group
name:

natural

phenomena: "rain“ (Germ. Regen, Dutch Regen),
seasons: "Summer" (Germ. Sommer), "winter“ (Germ. Winter);
d) objects of surrounding nature: "wood" (Old Germ. Weter; Old Norwegian- vitur), “field” (Old Eng. feld, Germ. Feld; Old Dutch veld);
principal colours: "blue" (Germ. Blau, Swedish bla);
trees, plants, fruits: "oak" (Germ. Eiche), “grass” (Germ. Grass);
household articles, domestic animals, birds: "house" (Germ. Haus),"bed" (Germ. Bett), "hen" (Germ. Hahn);
food products: "bread" (Germ. Brot), "milk" (Germ. Milch);
h) parts of the body: "hand" (Germ. Hand), "finger" (Germ. Finger);
some adjectives: "good" (Germ. Gut), "small" (Germ. schmall);
k) many verbs, including all strong verbs: “fall" (Germ. Fallen), "bring“ (Germ. Bringen), "drink" (Germ.Trinken);
N.B. !!!
Here belong structural elements which form the basis of the lang.: articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and modal verbs

she, we, you
Propositions: at, on, if, by
Conjunctions: and, which, that,

but
Numerals: one, ten, fifty, the third
Modal and auxiliary verbs: be, shall, will

: I

origin have the greatest currency in everyday speech.
3) Words which

are used only in English are not numerous: bird, girl, bad, boy, black, blue and some others.

grammatical valency;
2) high frequency value;
3) a developed polysemy;
4) are

mostly monosyllabic;
5) show great world-building power;
6) enter a number of set expressions, e.g., "watch" is one of the 500 most frequent English words:
Word-family: watch-dog, watcher, watchful, watch-out, watchword, etc.
Some set expressions: be on the watch, keep watch, watchful as a hawk.
A proverb: The watched pot never boils (сf. Ukr.‘ Хто над чайником стоїть, в того вода не кипить’), (Rus.’ Когда ждешь, время долго тянется)‘

economic and cultural relationships between nations. A loan-word is taken

from another language and is modified in phonemic shape, spelling, meaning or paradigm according to the standards of English.
Apart from words word-building affixes were borrowed (e.g. -able, - ment, - ity etc. )

Christianity
the Danish and Norman conquests. And in modern times

active contacts with countries worldwide (in modern times)
Features
Are used in the written style of speech
Are more abstract, bookish and terminological
The process of borrowing foreign words is active and productive in Mod.E. and is one of the sources of enriching the English vocabulary.
Two different terms should be distinguished here:
1) source of borrowing (the l-ge from which the loan word was taken into English) e.g. Eng. table < Fr. table
origin of borrowing ( refers to the l-ge to which the word may be traced), e.g. table Fr. < table < Lat. tabula or
Elephant < Egyptian < French < English

material available in English but according to foreign patterns (cf.

Rus. стенная газета – wallpaper, Fr. Cela va sans dire – ‘i t goes without saying’)
Semantic borrowing - a word acquires a new meaning, e.g. pioneer ‘first’ > ‘a member of the young pioneer organization’ or preserves one of its meanings, e.g. cannon < Fr (a polysemantic word) < Eng. only ‘gun’, Fr. sport ‘pleasures, entertainment’ < Eng. sport only as ‘outdoor game and exercise’.
Barbarisms – not assimilated in any way and for which there are corresponding English equivalents (It. ciao – Eng. good-bye)

(comprises changes in sound form and stress when /combinations of/

sounds alien to English conform to its norms): communique, café, coup d’ etat - /e/>/ei/, Germ.spitz /jpits/>Eng./spits/. The degree of assimilation depends on the period of borrowing - the earlier> the fuller assimilation (plate), later > as in French (regime, valise);
2) grammatic (change in paradigm): Fr.finir-finisson, Eng.finishes, -ed, -ing, but datum-data, criterion-criteria, crisis-crises etc.;
3) lexical, or semantic (narrowing of meaning – polysemantic > mono-semantic, acquires specialization, generalization or new meaning). It is a process of acquiring a currency not only in written but also in neutral and oral style of speech. Fr. cry, dean, image were religious terms, later – everyday words. Besides, the borrowed word begins to combine with native root and derivational morphemes and in this way forms hybrids: table-cloth, simple-minded, battle-field – the 1st component is Romanic, the 2nd – Germanic. In words by-product, outline – the 1st component is Germanic and the 2nd - Romanic

* Partial (lacks one of the types of assimilation) which

are subdivided into:
a) not assimilated semantically – shah, rajah, bei, rickshaw, sherbet etc. denoting objects peculiar to the original country;
b) not assimilated grammatically – genius – genii, bacillus-bacilli, formula-formulae, index-indices;
c) not assimilated phonetically – machine, tobacco, camouflage, bourgeois
d) not assimilated graphically – ballet, buffet, bouquet, cliché etc

* Not assimilated at all (barbarism)– ciao, addio, affiche ( for placard), ad libitum ( for pleasure), bambino, tête- a-tête, Blitzkrig, bonmot etc.

but which go back, by different ways, to the same

original word. In many cases one and the same word was borrowed twice either from the same language at different periods of time or from different languages. This accounts for the existence of canal (Lat.) – channel (Fr.),balsam (Gr.) – balm (Fr.), skirt (Sc.) – shirt (Eng.). They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning and current use. In doublets whole and hale we find traces of OE dialects (‘healthy’, ‘free of disease’ - both > OE hāl, drag –draw both come from OE dragan).
Etymological doublets are divided into 4 groups:
Scandinavian-English doublets skirt - shirt, screech – shriek, scar-share, scabby-shabby - from OE and Scandinavian;
Latin doublets (Lat. discus – OE disc )
Native doublets ( dish < ME dish < OE disc);
Miscellaneous doublets ( Parisian Fr. chase and of OFr. origin catch, chieftan-captain, guard-ward, gage-wage (‘a stake’, ‘bet’). The total number ~ 1500

were in contact with the Romans): cheese, street, wall, wine,

cup, mule, cook, pepper, dish, kettle, chest, pear, plum, beet, mile, mill, ass, colony et.
Later Latin loans, 6-7th cent. ( when converted to Christianity): altar, candle, chapter, feast, cross
The third period: a) Norman conquest in 1066 and Renaissance: animal, article, antenna, genius,stimulus, omnibus, nucleus, datum, index, series, species, alibi, item, maxi/minimum, superior, prior, senior, junior etc
The latest period of Lat. loans: (abstract and scientific terms): e.g. (exempli gratia), i.d.(id est –that is to say), a.m., p.m., AD, etc. (et cetera), cf. ( confer – compare), ibid. (in the same place), op.cit. (opus citatum – a work cited) , viz. (videlicet – in other words)

arm, boil, brace, breeze brush, cage, calm, car case, chain,

chance, change, chase, chief, clear, close, corpse, cry, capital, danger, final, mercy, probable, many juridical and military terms: court, crime, claim, justice, suit, judge battle, navy, soldier, troops, sergeant, prison
2) later loans – vocabulary of church and literature: blame, lesson, pray, service, tempt, novelist, publisher, magazine, editor, sir, madam; of cookery: jelly, fry, pastry, roast, sauce, toast; French endings: -able, -age, -ry, -age, - ess (drinkable, husbandry, sheperdess) etc.

physics, dialogue, episode, epos, philology, philosophy, problem, rhythm, scene, tragedy,

scheme, ode, psychiatry, pediatrics, gymnastics,adenoids etc
In linguistics: antonym, archaism, dialect, idiom, etymology, euphemism, homonym, homophone, lexicology, metaphor, metonymy, neologism, polysemy, synecdoche, synonym

scare, skin, skirt, sky , score, skull, scant
Nouns: anger, bull,

by-law, calf, crop, egg, wing gate, guest, fellow, knife, root, sister, window
Adjectives: flat, ill, low, loose, meak, odd, ugly, rotten, wrong etc.
Verbs:bask, cast, call, drown, die, droop, gape, guess,thrust, get, give, take, want, raise etc.
Pronouns: same, they, their, them

down -‘hill’; bin – ’a chest for corn’ ; dun

– ‘colour’; budget, career, clan, flannel, mackintosh, plaid, tunnel

structure of a word.
Morpheme vs. word.
Principles of morphemic analysis (into

immediate constituents – IC and Ultimate Constituents - UC)
Types of morphemes: the root morpheme
the affixational morpheme
free and bound morphemes
allomorphes
monomorphic/polymorphic words
Structural types of words: simple, derived, compounds

the material available in the language according to certain structural

and semantic patterns. Word – a principal , basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphological level (within paradigmatic relations) and the smallest on the syntactic level (within syntagmatic relations)

unit possessing form @ content, that is physical (sound or

visual) form @ meaning.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful indivisible two-faceted linguistic unit.
Word = root morpheme (+ affixes)
Root-morpheme is a semantic nucleus of a word, has no grammatical properties.

do not coincide with separate word-forms (theor-y, theor-etic-al, horr-or, horr-ible,

horr-ify, tele-graph, tele-scope,micro-phone)
Pseudo-morphemes: retain, detain, contain, receive, conceive, deceive, perceive
Allomorphes are phonemic variants of the morpheme: please, pleasure, pleasant
Semi-affixes (intermediate position // roots and affixes: well-, self-, -man, ill-, half- etc.)

an affixal morpheme which indicates grammatical relationships: number
(-s,-es), case

(’s), gender (lioness ), tense (-s, -ed)
Inflections have only grammatical meaning, are used to make word-forms.
Derivational morpheme is affixal which when added to roots or bases modifies the lexical meaning of the word and changes its function.
Affixation – the formation of words by adding derivational affixes.
It is divided into suffixation @ prefixation, i.e. derivational affixes – suffixes @ prefixes.
Suffixation is used for creating nouns and adjectives,
Prefixation – for creating verbs

longer perceived as component parts of words, they have fused

with the stem of the word and lost their independence completely. They can be singled out only etimologically (- d in deed, seed)
Living affixes are easily singled out from words
-ness, -less, -dom, -hood, -able. –ible, -ly, -ful etc

of one root: boy, girl, son, blue
Polymorphic words –

one root-morpheme + derivational morpheme(s): acceptable, unfriendliness, changeability, husbandhood