N a m e - D H R U V V A S H ISHT G R O U P - 1 9 2 B L A - 1

which must first make contact with the host and then

establish a focus of infection in order to cause infectious disease. To establish an infection, the pathogen must first colonize the skin or the internal mucosal surfaces of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, or urogenital tracts and then overcome or bypass the innate immune defenses associated with the epithelia and underlying tissues. If it succeeds in doing this, it will provoke an adaptive immune response that will take effect after several days and will usually clear the infection. Pathogens differ greatly in their lifestyles and means of pathogenesis, requiring an equally diverse set of defensive responses from the host immune system.

the body are called Infectious Diseases. They can spread by any

means where there is a germ. They are caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, parasites and fungi. Germs can be spread by direct or indirect contact. Vaccination, maintenance of proper hygiene and medicines help in the prevention of infection.
Bacterial infectious diseases
Viral infectious diseases
Parasitic infectious diseases
Fungal infectious diseases
Mycobacterial diseases
Air borne diseases
Food borne diseases

infectious diseases or pediatric infectious diseases
Geriatric infectious diseases
Nosocomial infections or

hospital acquired infections
Sexually transmitted diseases
Allergic infectious diseases
Neuro infectious diseases
Transplant infectious diseases
Topical infectious diseases
Inflammatory infectious diseases
Opportunistic infections

infectious diseases Zoonotic Bacterial Diseases Tetanus Typhoid fever Cholera C. gattii infection collapsed

Landscape science as a basis.

Soviet scientist, in the 1930s.
This theory generalized material and

data that had been gathered on natural focal infectious and parasitic diseases and the complex networks of mutually linked and mutually dependent pathogen, animal host and arthropod vector populations, which make up a biotic component that is organically linked to natural landscapes. The history of research on natural focal diseases in Russia, the contributions of Russian and Soviet scientists to the development of the theory of the emergence and spread of natural focal diseases .

understanding of what makes a natural focus is discussed, along

with the theory’s main tenets. The level of cartographical research on the spread of natural focal diseases in Russia is briefly characterized, and the methodology of map compilation is also explained. The chapter includes a geographical map of Russia and a map of its federal administrative divisions, which simplifies the later connections between the thematic content, geographic units and units of territorial divisions

contains a series of maps on disease incidence, long-term dynamics

of disease morbidity, etc. In addition, other materials available to the authors were used: mapping of the natural environment, field data, archival materials, analyzed satellite images, etc. The maps are processed using ArcGIS (ESRI) software application. Different methods of rendering of mapped phenomena are used (geographical ranges, diagrams, choropleth maps etc.).

incidence in the population at both the national and regional

levels for the last 15 years. Maps of the mean annual morbidity of certain infections and maps of morbidity dynamics and nosological profiles allow for a detailed analysis of the situation for each of 83 administrative units of the Russian Federation. The degree of epidemic hazard in Russia by natural-focal diseases is reflected in a synthetic medico-geographical map that shows the degree of epidemic risks due to such diseases in Russia and allows one to estimate the risk of disease manifestation in a given region.

of diverse and multifaceted information about natural-focal diseases in Russia.

Taken in entirety, the maps that have been prepared for the Atlas will enable researchers to evaluate the stability of epidemic manifestation of individual diseases and the susceptibility of a given territory to disease transmission. The results can be used for sanitary monitoring and disease prevention

and services, and human health. Climate change, land use, and

transport vectors interact in complex ways to determine the spread of native and non‐native invasive species, pathogens, and their effects on ecosystem dynamics. Early detection and in‐depth understanding of invasive species and infectious diseases will require an integrated network of research platforms and information exchange to identify hotspots of invasion or disease emergence. Partnerships with state and federal agencies that monitor the spread and impacts of invasive species and pathogens will be critical in developing a

understanding of the resulting effects on ecosystems and society.Citizen science

can also play a role; individuals can report new invasions, record phenological changes associated with invasions or disease outbreaks, and can participate in efforts such as the Breeding Bird Survey, which may reveal long‐term biotic change following species invasions and disease spread. Thesocietal impacts of invasive species and pathogens differ across gradients of climate and land use, and in the presence of global climate change may exacerbate both their propagation and impacts. Understanding the interactions of invasive species, disease vectors, and pathogens with other drivers of ecosystem change healt well‐being.

on the human body.

mechanisms of plants, through their infestation with toxin-producing mould, or

through ingestion by animals of toxin-producing microorganisms. Natural toxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to both humans and livestock. Some of these toxins are extremely potent. Adverse health effects can be acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions to severe stomachache and diarrhoea, and even death. Long-term health consequences include effects on the immune, reproductive or nervous systems, and also cancer