Natalie Reid
www.nataliereid.com
natalie@nataliereid.com
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ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION
Содержание
- 1. ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION
- 2. Source MaterialGetting Published in International Journals: Writing
- 3. Why Writing in English is DifferentTheory of
- 4. What writing in English demandsEvery sentence must
- 5. [continued]Nothing in English is implicit. You must
- 6. Your obligation as a writerYou must never
- 7. Because…Academic English is the world’s only 100%
- 8. The Five Essential Strategies for Maximizing Your
- 9. Organizing and Arguing in Aristotelian logicArgumentation
- 10. ParagraphingAll English paragraphs must have a topic
- 11. Paragraphs, cont.US and UK paragraph styles often
- 12. Paragraphs, cont.Analyze your journal of choice for
- 13. Arguing according to Aristotle“What you should do
- 14. What Aristotle didSystematized the study of rhetoricDefined
- 15. Three strategic tactics for an Aristotelian argument
- 16. What Aristotle also didDeveloped the concepts of
- 17. So we come, again, to“WRITING IS THOUGHT
- 18. The three major keys to English argumentationAnalysis:
- 19. What is an argument?Your argument is to
- 20. [continued]…. But if what gets in the
- 21. Avoid these two constructionsIt is argued that….It is obvious that….
- 22. DeterminantsYour argument should determine what goes where
- 23. What Goes Where in a PaperIntroduction (depending
- 24. Sample CARS modelTerritory: Most studies of ____
- 25. CARS (continued)Occupy niche with purpose statement: Using
- 26. Sample Purpose StatementsThis article discusses recent developments
- 27. CARS analysis of abstract published in “Health”
- 28. Sample Introduction AnalysisIntroduction: 6-9 paragraphs (but sometimes
- 29. Sample Analysis, cont.The rest of the paragraphs,
- 30. Sample Analysis, cont.—Final 1-3 paragraphs (except last)
- 31. Sample Analysis, cont.—The last paragraph names contributions
- 32. Guidelines from “Childhood” “The Introduction (no heading) should
- 33. What Goes Where in a PaperBody (everything
- 34. What Goes Where in a PaperConclusionNothing new
- 35. What Goes Where in a PaperDiscussion /
- 36. The AbstractShould be presented first but written
- 37. Outlining TechniqueDecide on your purpose. Write a
- 38. Outlining [continued]3. Become critical. Relate every item
- 39. Outlining [continued]Group together all related items. (Each
- 40. Outlining [continued]5. Put the items in each group
- 41. Outlining [continued]6. Place all the groups in a
- 42. Abstract AnalysisWhy? Editor’s/reviewers’ first impression!• It contains
- 43. Journal of Biomedical ScienceAbstract:“The Abstract of the
- 44. Analyzing Abstracts from Your Journal of Choice•
- 45. Sample Abstract AnalysisAlmost always 4 sentences (sometimes
- 46. Sample Analysis, cont. • We found that...RESULT 1
- 47. Sample Abstract Analysis“Ethics, Problem Framing, and Training
- 48. Nespor & Groenke, cont.Using Purpose Phrases Method:—Purpose
- 49. Sample “Purpose Phrase” Abstract Abstract for presenting
- 50. Another “Purpose Phrase” AbstractClassic abstract for just
- 51. Difference between Results and ConclusionsResults: Your specific
- 52. Preliminary Argumentation Editing ChecklistDoes my argument proceed
- 53. Preliminary Checklist, cont.Have I defined all my
- 54. Most ImportantDoes everything (e.g., # of tables,
- 55. Resubmission LettersNever assume that the editor remembers
- 56. Resubmission letters, cont. Use language such
- 57. To Recap: Some Overall GuidelinesBe as concise
- 58. Скачать презентанцию
Source MaterialGetting Published in International Journals: Writing Strategies for European Social Scientists by Natalie Reid, (NOVA, 2010; Oslo) www.amazon.com www.nataliereid.com
Слайды и текст этой презентации
Слайд 1ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION
Copyright © 2014
Natalie Reid
www.nataliereid.com
natalie@nataliereid.com
Слайд 2Source Material
Getting Published in International Journals: Writing Strategies for European
Social Scientists
by Natalie Reid, (NOVA, 2010; Oslo)
www.amazon.com
www.nataliereid.com
Слайд 3Why Writing in English is Different
Theory of contrastive rhetoric
The “psychology
of reading”
Different expectations of readers and writers
“Writing is thought
made visible”
Слайд 4What writing in English demands
Every sentence must be clear on
first reading, for only one meaning.
An English paper is a
self-contained universe. Everything that the reader needs to know must in the paper—and precisely where it belongs—so that the reader never, ever, gets confused. The writer must frame everything: not only the paper but also every section and paragraph.
Слайд 5[continued]
Nothing in English is implicit. You must spell everything out,
and define all terms when you first mention them.
An English
paper creates an airtight empirical or theoretical proof. You do not narrate, discuss, or loosely theorize—instead, you tell the reader what you will or won’t do, then do it, then show the reader that you have done it and how you have done it.![[continued]Nothing in English is implicit. You must spell everything out, and define all terms when you first](/img/thumbs/748e2b6c0e307e00d65cd692141ca9ab-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION [continued]Nothing in English is implicit. You must spell everything out, and")
Слайд 6Your obligation as a writer
You must never take reader knowledge
for granted. Assume nothing. Put everything where it belongs, as
if nothing exists in the universe beyond your paper.WHY?
Слайд 7Because…
Academic English is the world’s only 100% writer-responsible language. In
English, only the reader and the reader’s needs matter. If
the reader has to think about the writing, to figure out what it means or where the writer is going, then the writing, by definition, is not acceptable.
Слайд 8The Five Essential Strategies for Maximizing Your Publication Chances
Analyzing journals
both for elimination and for submission
Organizing and arguing in Aristotelian
logicEditing for strength (less is more)
Editing for clarity (clarity rules!)
Revising rigorously for language, clarity, argumentation, punctuation, etc.
Слайд 9
Organizing and Arguing in Aristotelian logic
Argumentation according to Aristotle
Five-paragraph essay
model
John Swales’ CARS model:
Establish the territory
Establish the niche
Occupy the niche
(i.e., purpose statement)
Слайд 10Paragraphing
All English paragraphs must have a topic sentence (a framing
sentence). It tells the reader what the paragraph is going
to be about.Ex: “What constitutes a paragraph—and what specific weight a paragraph carries—depends on the rhetorical tradition within a linguistic community.”
Ex: “Three factors are involved in studying X: 1, 2, and 3.”
Ex: “Caring for the very ill involves heavy physical and mental demands on professional caregivers.”
Слайд 11Paragraphs, cont.
US and UK paragraph styles often differ.
The reader must
be able to absorb the contents of a paragraph in
one reading, without having to pause for a break mid-way. A very long paragraph is unreadable.Paragraphs must be tightly focused.
Слайд 12Paragraphs, cont.
Analyze your journal of choice for paragraph length.
As a
default position, keep all—or at least most—of your paragraphs no
longer than 12-14 lines of type.Just as you should always vary the length of your sentences, vary the length of your paragraphs.
Слайд 13Arguing according to Aristotle
“What you should do in your introduction
is to state your subjects, in order that the point
to be judged may be quite plain; in the epilogue you should summarize the argument by which your case has been proved.”—Aristotle
Слайд 14What Aristotle did
Systematized the study of rhetoric
Defined rhetoric as the
“art of finding the best available means of persuasion in
any situation”Conceived of persuasion as a strategy
Laid out three distinct tactics for making an argument:
Слайд 15Three strategic tactics for an Aristotelian argument
Ethos (showing the
speaker’s trustworthiness)
Pathos (appealing to the values most deeply held—and the
emotions most deeply felt—by a particular audience)Logos (using logical, sound reasoning)
Слайд 16What Aristotle also did
Developed the concepts of inductive and deductive
reasoning
Discussed and emphasized the critical importance of clarity (no clarity,
no logos!), including various kinds of sentence structure and language
Слайд 17So we come, again, to
“WRITING IS THOUGHT MADE VISIBLE”
Translation: “If
you can’t say what you mean, you don’t know what
you mean; and if you can’t say it clearly, you obviously can’t think clearly.”
Слайд 18The three major keys to English argumentation
Analysis: breaking down things
and ideas into clear, meaningful parts
Synthesis: combining diverse elements into
a coherent wholeFraming
Слайд 19What is an argument?
Your argument is to your paper as
a story or a plot is to a novel: it
is the skeleton that holds it together; it is the spine that allows it to stand upright; it is the only thing that matters. If anything—no matter how interesting—gets in the way of your argument, throw it out! But….
Слайд 20[continued]
…. But if what gets in the way of your
argument is important or useful, then your argument is flawed.
You then need to either reconstruct it or scrap it entirely and find a better one.![[continued]…. But if what gets in the way of your argument is important or useful, then your](/img/thumbs/d2986d52891862643aa10da997a3b0c8-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION [continued]…. But if what gets in the way of your argument")
Слайд 22Determinants
Your argument should determine what goes where in a paper
But
the journal style must determine what goes where in your
paper.Therefore, you must structure your argument according to the format of the journal you have chosen.
Слайд 23What Goes Where in a Paper
Introduction (depending on journal)
Necessary background
/ territory & niche
Purpose statement
Brief description of data set
Scope
(in certain
fields) Results & conclusions
Слайд 24Sample CARS model
Territory: Most studies of ____ focus on the
relationship between A and B.
Niche: However, almost no studies investigate
the relationship between B and B+1, a relationship critical to our understanding of the important processes of XYZ.
Слайд 25CARS (continued)
Occupy niche with purpose statement: Using data from Denmark,
this paper analyzes the relationship of B to B+1. More
specifically, it applies [Famous Scholar X’s] theory of LMNOP to an examination of….
Слайд 26Sample Purpose Statements
This article discusses recent developments in [this] and
analyzes their effectiveness in terms of the theory of [that].
This
study explores discourses about professional caregivers caring for [certain group of people] in [country] in [decade].This paper argues and presents evidence that [this] is a more effective strategy than [that] during peaceful regime changes.
![Sample Purpose StatementsThis article discusses recent developments in [this] and analyzes their effectiveness in terms of the](/img/thumbs/e7d37b1345c5ac17e2ebfafb4d1666d7-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION Sample Purpose StatementsThis article discusses recent developments in [this] and analyzes")
Слайд 27CARS analysis of abstract published in “Health” (Jan. 2012)
“Pharmaceutical products
are commonly relied upon by professionals, and correspondingly patients, within
a wide range of healthcare contexts. This dependence, combined with the inherent risk and uncertainty surrounding both medical practice and the drugs it harnesses, points towards the importance of trust in the pharmaceutical industry – a subject which has been much neglected by researchers. This article begins to address this deficiency by mapping out a conceptual framework which may form a useful basis for future research into this important topic….”
Слайд 28Sample Introduction Analysis
Introduction: 6-9 paragraphs (but sometimes as few as
4), 500-1200 words
(mostly on longer side)Often begins with a research question, contention, or empirical phenomenon (first sentence):
—How can A do B?
—The questions XYZ are a central topic in literature ABC.
—Relationship between A & B has gained increased attention in recent literature.
—A contention of theory XYZ is that factors A & B can best explain Result C.
—A is much more frequent than B.
Слайд 29Sample Analysis, cont.
The rest of the paragraphs, except the last,
follow the “territory-niche-occupy niche” structure:
—First 1-3 paragraphs usually cover literature
strands (territory)• Old literature has highlighted the importance of A, B, & C.
• New literature has explored D, E, & F.
—Next 1-3 paragraphs show what remain unclear theoretically/ methodologically or econometrically (establish niche)
• Literature 1 + 2 draw critical attention to....
• Relationship between A + B and A + C (or B + C) remains unclear. (theoretical argument)
• Furthermore, methodological problems are not resolved.
Слайд 30Sample Analysis, cont.
—Final 1-3 paragraphs (except last) explain how this
paper solves the problem (occupies niche) and includes description of
data, definitions, etc.• We emphasize A, B, C....
• Building on these perspectives, I explore A + B + C.
- I define term XYZ as....
- I test data ABC with....
• The current study responds to challenges with theoretical and empirical contributions. We argue that Theoretical Argument 1, Methodological Argument 2, Data 3....
Слайд 31Sample Analysis, cont.
—The last paragraph names contributions of the paper
(2 to 4-5 arguments):
• By examining XYZ..., I make several
contributions: 1, 2, 3....• Our findings indicate...Contribution 1, 2, 3....
• This article makes several contributions to the literature:
First.... Second....
This paragraph often ends with very short overall conclusions/lessons learned:
• Overall RESULTS foster research discussion.
• RESULTS help to solve practical problems.
Слайд 32Guidelines from “Childhood”
“The Introduction (no heading) should clearly state the
purpose of the article, give only strictly pertinent references, and
not review the subject extensively. Material, Methods and Results must be presented in logical sequence in the text, with text and illustrations emphasizing only important observations. The Discussion should emphasize new and important observations of the study and conclusions therefrom. Do not repeat in detail data from results. Include implications of the findings and their limitations, and relate observations to other relevant studies.”
Слайд 33What Goes Where in a Paper
Body (everything between the introduction
and the conclusions)
necessary theory or background or literature review
methodology
data
results (plus
robustness checks, etc.)
Слайд 34What Goes Where in a Paper
Conclusion
Nothing new goes in a
conclusion! It must derive solely and logically from the information
and organization contained in the Body.If the journal has a Discussion section....
Слайд 35What Goes Where in a Paper
Discussion / Recommendations for Future
Research, etc.
These sections must naturally come out of the Conclusions;
that is, they must remain within the framework of all previous discussions (e.g., our study of X was limited to Country Z; future research should include other countries / additional environmental factors, such as....)
Слайд 36The Abstract
Should be presented first but written last
Should never exceed
journal’s word limit. [Usually includes territory (if nec.), niche, purpose
statement, results, conclusions, future research (if nec.)]Should omit details
Must follow style of most common abstract pattern in journal
Слайд 37Outlining Technique
Decide on your purpose. Write a one-sentence purpose statement.
Brainstorm: Tell the critical side of your brain to take
a nap and write down every possible idea, theory, reference, method, etc., that could go in your paper. Let your mind range freely.
Слайд 38Outlining [continued]
3. Become critical. Relate every item on your brainstorming
list back to the purpose statement and eliminate all irrelevant
ideas.Look carefully at what remains on the list. If the list doesn’t really cover what you know you have to write,
then your purpose statement doesn’t accurately reflect your purpose. If necessary, rewrite your purpose statement and repeat all the steps to this point.
By the time you finish this step, you should be satisfied with both your purpose statement and your list.
![Outlining [continued]3. Become critical. Relate every item on your brainstorming list back to the purpose statement and](/img/thumbs/a7c00b33a852ef66516ceaaa78bbd253-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION Outlining [continued]3. Become critical. Relate every item on your brainstorming list")
Слайд 39Outlining [continued]
Group together all related items.
(Each group will become
a paragraph or a series of paragraphs.)
![Outlining [continued]Group together all related items. (Each group will become a paragraph or a series of paragraphs.)](/img/thumbs/dbd2c79a8f709e80d1c31031ec2a2e25-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION Outlining [continued]Group together all related items. (Each group will become a")
Слайд 40Outlining [continued]
5. Put the items in each group in a logical
order.
Add any items that you suddenly realize you have left
out.Eliminate any items that turn out to be redundant or irrelevant.
![Outlining [continued]5. Put the items in each group in a logical order. Add any items that you suddenly realize](/img/thumbs/7f5f12133d4db40a18f85c96278ff0aa-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION Outlining [continued]5. Put the items in each group in a logical order. Add")
Слайд 41Outlining [continued]
6. Place all the groups in a logical sequence. (That
sequence will usually be directly related to the organization of
sections in your journal of choice.)![Outlining [continued]6. Place all the groups in a logical sequence. (That sequence will usually be directly related to](/img/thumbs/d11785d35f1423ae09ec38ac196651d0-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION Outlining [continued]6. Place all the groups in a logical sequence. (That sequence")
Слайд 42Abstract Analysis
Why? Editor’s/reviewers’ first impression!
• It contains the essence of
the entire paper.
• Both online and in some fields, only
few people read the entire paper.• “A concise abstract should briefly state the purpose of the research and the main results.” [Journal of Health Economics, submission guidelines]
Слайд 43Journal of Biomedical Science
Abstract:
“The Abstract of the manuscript should not
exceed 350 words and must be structured into separate sections:
Background, the context and purpose of the study; Results, the main findings; and Conclusions, brief summary and potential implications. Please minimize the use of abbreviations and do not cite references….”
Слайд 44Analyzing Abstracts from Your Journal of Choice
• First, consider sentence
information:
What does each sentence tell you in terms of the
purpose, theory, method, data, findings, or conclusions of the paper?• Second, consider sentence purpose: What is each sentence doing in its particular position in the abstract, what purpose does it serve, and how does it do so?
Слайд 45Sample Abstract Analysis
Almost always 4 sentences (sometimes 3), about 100
words
—First sentence: (Data + question) typically is:
• Using...DATA, we found...RESULTS.
•
With...DATA, we examine...QUESTION.• Based on...DATA, we examine how A and B are related.
—Second & third sentences (Results 1 & 2) typically are:
• We discover...RESULT 1 (most important). We also found...RESULT 2 (corollary or secondary result).
• Findings of this study demonstrate RESULT 1 (negative relationship between X & Y). Variable Z...RESULT 2 (Var. Z moderated this effect).
Слайд 46Sample Analysis, cont.
• We found that...RESULT 1 (Var. X is
positively related to Var. Y). Both Var. X and Var.
Y moderate Var. Z.—Fourth sentence (conclusion/consequence/lesson learned/additional result) typically is:
• These findings illustrate the benefits of applying Method A.
• Variable ZZ did not make a difference.
• We develop a theoretical framework and empirical approach for understanding how X and Y are related.
• We present a model based on two data sets that demonstrate how X reduces Y.
Слайд 47Sample Abstract Analysis
“Ethics, Problem Framing, and Training in Qualitative Inquiry”
by Jan Nespor and Susan L. Groenke (Qualitative Inquiry, 2009):
This
article examines the ethical issues bound up in the ways research problems are initially framed: the questions asked, the temporal and spatial frames of the study, the ways participants are defined. It explores the consequences of thinking through ethical issues using recent reconceptualizations of agency and suggests extensions of the ways researchers define participants for ethical purposes. The article concludes by examining some of the reasons for the relative neglect of such issues in graduate research preparation.
Слайд 48Nespor & Groenke, cont.
Using Purpose Phrases Method:
—Purpose (This article examines
A issues in framing three B problems: 1, 2, 3.)
—Refining
of purpose/methodology (It explores the consequences of thinking through A issues using C methodology.)—Conclusions (“The article concludes....”)
Слайд 49Sample “Purpose Phrase” Abstract
Abstract for presenting a new model
(3-4 sentences)
Purpose (We present a model of....)
Explanation of model (Model
exhibits # of features that....)Conclusion (Model sheds light on A, as well as on B.)
Слайд 50Another “Purpose Phrase” Abstract
Classic abstract for just about any paper,
depending on journal [5 sentences]
Background (“Until the early 1990s....”)
Territory (“At
that time, X was happening”)- Niche (“As conventional explanations of X have failed,” the authors use Y approach)
- Occupying niche (Y “clearly explains” what happened in these instances of X)
- Results/conclusions (“This analysis suggests....”)
![Another “Purpose Phrase” AbstractClassic abstract for just about any paper, depending on journal [5 sentences] Background (“Until the](/img/thumbs/b9df679406720a199aa89b47ae3bb486-800x.jpg "ANGLO-AMERICAN ARGUMENTATION Another “Purpose Phrase” AbstractClassic abstract for just about any paper, depending")
Слайд 51Difference between Results and Conclusions
Results: Your specific findings
Conclusions: Your interpretation
or analysis of what you found; your insights and well-considered
opinions.Ex: “Most Americans take it for granted that they will receive all the electricity they need for their homes and offices.”
Result or Conclusion?
Слайд 52Preliminary Argumentation Editing Checklist
Does my argument proceed logically? Is it
airtight?
Have I named and countered all possible objections?
Have I considered
and minimized all possible disadvantages?Have I anticipated and answered all my reader’s likely questions?
Слайд 53Preliminary Checklist, cont.
Have I defined all my terms—and in the
right place (i.e., at first mention)?
Have I used any language
with which my reader may not be familiar?Have I proofread every word and punctuation mark?
Am I consistent in vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and grammar for UK or U.S. (or other) English?
Слайд 54Most Important
Does everything (e.g., # of tables, length of sections)
match the style of the journal?
Have I followed the journal’s
style/author guidelines (e.g., APA Style Manual, Chicago Style Manual) to the letter?Has a properly skilled native speaker of English read and edited the final draft? [Not every native English-speaking scholar is a good academic stylist, nor is a neighbor’s American or British spouse with no training in editing or academic writing a wise choice.]
Слайд 55Resubmission Letters
Never assume that the editor remembers the content of
your paper or anything that he or she wrote to
you.Never make the editor have to go back and forth between two documents.
Therefore, always cut-and-paste the reviewers’ comments, with your revisions and comments following in a different font or format.
Слайд 56Resubmission letters, cont.
Use language such as
I applied this
helpful suggestion to....
As referee 2 has suggested, I have changed....
This
revision makes much more clear how we draw our conclusions.Thanks to this comment, the revised article now more clearly focuses on....
Following reviewer 1’s suggestion, we have considerably reduced the extended example. We now link the case directly to both the theoretical framework and the practical consequences of X for [specific group].
Слайд 57To Recap: Some Overall Guidelines
Be as concise as possible without
sacrificing meaning.
Keep your sentences and paragraphs reasonably short.
Define all
your terms the first time you mention them.Always be clear—never allow your reader to become confused (not even for one sentence).
Write in the active voice whenever possible.
Frame (contextualize) everything. Frame your paper as important to the field. Always let the reader know what you are doing—and why.
Create as airtight a proof as possible.
Always write for a specific journal.
Revise and revise. Then have a skilled native speaker of English read and comment on the final draft.
