Lecture 12 the Pronoun

as a Separate Part of Speech.

2. Subclasses of Pronouns:

a) Traditional Classification Based on Meaning;
b)Functional Classification.

3. Morphological Features of the Pronoun.

4. Syntactic Characteristics of the Pronoun.

5. Words of Broad Meaning and Their Pronominal Features.
 

Separate Part of Speech
Categorial meaning: deixis.
The pronouns I, you, he,

etc., though pointing to things and in so far resembling nouns, cannot as a rule be modified by adjectives.
These pronouns differ from nouns in that they cannot be connected with any article, or modified by a prepositional phrase.

one, etc.

Compound pronouns (more than one stem): myself, somebody, no

one, nothing, etc.

Composite pronouns (phrase): each other, one another.

she (her), it, we (us), you, they (them).
The personal pronouns

serve to indicate all persons and things from the point of view of the speaker
All the personal pronouns are said to be noun pronouns or pro-nouns

they are in reality noun pro­nouns or pro-nouns
Possessive pronouns are

possessive case opposites of the personal pronouns
Two sets of pos­sessive pronouns — the conjoint possessive pronouns my, thy, her, our, your, their and the absolute possessive pronouns mine, thine, ours, yours, theirs.
The pairs my — mine, thy — thine, our — ours, your — yours, etc. can be regarded as opposemes of a grammatical category. It resem­bles the category of case.

expresses the anaphorical relation of the first element, i. e.

it shows that the first element refers to the person mentioned previously in the sentence.
I ... myself, thou .. thyself, he (or John) ... himself, she (or Mary) ... herself, it (or bird) . itself, we .. ourselves, you ... your­self (yourselves), they (or the chidren) ... themselves, one ... oneself.
The reflexive pronouns distinguish the lexico-grammatical meanings of person, number and gender.
Some linguists are of the opinion that in myself — ourselves, yourself— yourselves number is expressed grammati­cally.
These pronouns are used to form the so-called reflexive voice.

same are regarded as demonstrative. But this small group is

not homogeneous.
The pronouns this — that (these — those) are correlative.
The pronouns such and (the) same have no correlative pronouns.

some object (what, who), its properties (whose, which, what), place

of some event (where), its time (when), cause (why), manner of existence (how).
This group embraces pro-nouns (what, who, which, whose), pro-adjectives (what, which) and pro-adverbs (where, when, why, how).
Who and what are regularly used to distinguish "persons" and "non-persons".
The pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun which has a case opposite, whom, as in Whom did you meet?

But! There is a distinct tendency to substi­tute the nominative case (who) for the objective (whom), which may eventually bring about the obliteration of case distinctions in the interrogative pronouns.

why, how are called 'connective' when they serve to connect

clauses in complex sentences.
At the same time they retain their meanings and functions of pro-nouns, pro-adjectives or pro-adverbs.
This combination of functions is a typi­cal feature of the connective pronouns.
In accordance with their meaning and the types of clauses they introduce they fall into two groups: conjunctive pro­nouns and relative pronouns.

another.
They serve to express mutuality.
It is traditionally maintained that

each other implies only two and one another more than two, but this rule is often ignored, one another and each other becoming interchange­able.
The reciprocal pronouns share the noun case system.
Common case Possessive case
each other — each other's
one another — one another's

compounds), all, each, either, much, many, few, little, etc., words

of different lexical and grammatical nature.

V. N. Zhigadlo, P. Ivanova and L. L. lofik suppose that only the pronouns some, any and their compounds really indicate things, properties, etc. in an indefinite way.
They can be used as pro-nouns (some, somebody), pro-adjectives (some, each), as pro-adverbs (some)

neither, nowhere.
They can be used as pro-nouns (nobody, nobody's, none,

neither, nothing), pro-adjectives (no, neither), as a pro-adverb (nowhere) and a pro numeral (none).
E. g. How many have you caught? — Nine as yet.
The negative pronouns serve to build up negative sentences.

negative pronouns distinguish 'person' and 'non-person'
Neither refers both to animate

and inanimate objects (two of them).
In neither case can I agree. Both smil°d but neither spoke (Heyer).
Nobody — nobody's is a case opposeme of the noun type.

its compounds (everyone, everybody, every­thing, everywhere) which give a generalizing

indication of persons, things, properties and circumstances.
This group includes pro-nouns (all, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything); pro-adjectives and pro-numerals (every, each, all, both, either); pro-adverb (every­where) .
All, everybody, everything, everywhere, both may be said to have an inclusive, uniting meaning as opposed to every, each, either conveying a separating meaning '.

enough
They may function as pro-nouns (much, many, (a) few, several,

(a) little, enough); pro-adjectives (much, (a) little, enough); pro-numerals (many, several, (a) few); and pro-adverbs (much, (a) little, enough).

Most quantitative pronouns form opposemes of comparison:
many – more, the most
few – fewer, the fewest
little – less, the least

are united by the meaning "not the (object, property, circumstance)

indicated" and contrast therefore with the demonstrative pronouns:
This, that (book) — another (book)
these, those (books) — other (books)
these, those — others
thus, so — otherwise.
Other, others, other's, another, another's are used as pronouns, other and another as pro-adjectives, and otherwise as a pro-adverb.

a number opposite, others, like nouns of the book type.

When it denotes persons, it has also a case opposite, other's, like nouns of the boy type.

Another peculiarity of other is its combinability. Like a noun it may be used with the definite article or a demonstrative pronoun.

2) an indefinite personal or generalizing personal pronoun, 3) a

prop-word.
As an indefinite pronoun it is usually a pro-adjective with the meaning "a certain" and refers to both living beings and inanimate things.
As an indefinite or generalizhig personal pronoun one indicates only a person. It is a pro-noun. It has a case opposite one's and is correlated with the reflexive pronoun oneself.

Sometimes one serves to disguise the speaker, as in О п e just can't throw о п e' s self-respect to the dogs because of this sandy-haired boy. (Williamson).

common morphological or syntactical characteristics.

They constitute a separate class of

words with peculiar meanings and references to the world of reality.

All of them are of double nature, as they combine their peculiar meanings with certain properties of definite parts of speech.

she (it) we (you) they who

Obj. me him her (it) us (you) them whom

Genitive somebody’s, anybody’s, one’s, another’s

its place the four individual word-types of pronouns have appeared:

the nominative form
the objective form
the possessive form (conjoint and absolute).

before a noun)

The pronouns I / we; he, she, it

/ they have no grammatical category of number.

the sentence
predicative in the compound nominal predicate in sentences like:

It was I who did it.
Both the nominative and the objective case forms are used after the conjunctions as and than in comparative constructions: She is taller than I / me.

an attribute in prepositional phrases: Give me your hand; Were

you speaking about me?; The better half of me protested.

hands in his small pockets.
Mine is a beautiful garden.
This book

is hers.

have all kinds of beautiful sentiments myself. (apposition)
I learned

to dress myself many years ago. (direct object)

a large glass of warm ale. (indirect object)
She talks only

about herself. (prepositional object)

she became herself again. (predicative)
She showed me a large picture

of herself as a bride. (attribute)
My brother was a Robbins like myself. (adverbial modifier of comparison)
He lived in a tiny cottage all by himself. (adverbial modifier of manner)

they hate each other. They often quarrelled with one another.

The

possessive forms are used as attributes:
They stood silent, in each other’s arms.

predicative, object, or attribute.
This was my old dear car again.
His

story was like that.
Do you remember this?
The woods are so beautiful at this time of year.

bring me a glass of water.
Did somebody call me up?

One

is used as subject and attribute (in the genitive case)
One never knows what may happen.
One’s thoughts should be kept to oneself.

remember none of the stories.
It looked like nobody’s home.

was terribly plain.
He gulped one cup, then another.
I live on

the other side.

by the window.
Everything looks so beautiful in spring.
I haven’t read

all the book.

name?
What did you say?
What are you looking at?
What book are

you reading?

clause)
I know who did it. (who opens the object

clause)
They were what you call model girls. (what opens the predicative clause)
Whatever you may do you can’t save the situation. (whatever opens the adverbial concessive clause)

don’t know which of the books is better (conjunctive pronoun).
That

is the man who has saved your child (relative pronoun).
Here is the book which the lecturer recommended (relative pronoun).
Relative pronouns may function in the subordinate attributive clause as subject, object, attribute, and adverbial modifier (with prepositions).

of broad meaning are identified as forming an intermediary layer

between the pronouns and notional words proper.
I wish at her age she'd learn to sit quiet and not do things.
Flora's suggestion is making sense.
I will therefore briefly set down the circumstances which led to my being connected with the affair.

one, it, they...-do, make, act...-such, similar, same... - thus, so,

there...
Symbolically the correlation of the nominal and pronominal paradigmatic schemes is stated as follows:
N-V-A-D- Npro - Vpro - Apro - Dpro