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The word classes or parts of speech in English презентация, доклад

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Lecture outlineParts of speech: a historical perspectiveTraditional approaches based on various criteriaDebatable issues

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Слайд 1The word classes or parts of speech in English
Lecture 4

The word classes or parts of speech in EnglishLecture 4

Слайд 2Lecture outline
Parts of speech: a historical perspective
Traditional approaches based on

various criteria
Debatable issues

Lecture outlineParts of speech: a historical perspectiveTraditional approaches based on various criteriaDebatable issues

Слайд 3The word
A meaningful, expressive, nominative unit of language;
Belongs to a

particular language level;
Consists of form and meaning (signified and signifier).




The wordA meaningful, expressive, nominative unit of language;Belongs to a particular language level;Consists of form and meaning

Слайд 4Groups of words in lexicology
Semantic classification of words: synonyms and

antonyms;
etymologically: words of native origin and borrowing;
stylistically: neutral or stylistically

marked;
frequency: active and passive, etc.


Groups of words in lexicologySemantic classification of words: synonyms and antonyms;etymologically: words of native origin and borrowing;stylistically:

Слайд 5Classes of words in grammar
Grammar organizes the words into

a comparatively small number of classes:
grammatically relevant classes;
traditionally – parts

of speech (from Ancient Greece, rather confusing);
the system of the parts of speech is historically variable.

Classes of words in grammar Grammar organizes the words into a comparatively small number of classes:grammatically relevant

Слайд 6Lexical and grammatical properties of the word
A word has a

certain lexical meaning: the individual meaning of the word (chair

– a definite piece of furniture);

it also possesses a more general and abstract meaning – grammatical meaning, the meaning of the whole class or subclass of words (thingness, countableness of ‘chair’).
Lexical and grammatical properties of the wordA word has a certain lexical meaning: the individual meaning of

Слайд 7The grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract meaning,

which unites big sets or classes of words and is

expressed with the help of characteristic formal markers or their absence.

The grammatical meaningThe grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract meaning, which unites big sets or classes of

Слайд 8 The historical perspective Prescriptive grammars
Latin grammars;
declinables (nouns, adjectives, pronouns,

verbs, participles) and indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, articles);
the number

of parts of speech varied from author to author: for instance, nouns and adjectives formed one part of speech.
The historical perspective Prescriptive grammars  Latin grammars; declinables (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, participles) and indeclinables

Слайд 9The historical perspective Non-structural descriptive grammars
Henry Sweet: declinables and indiclinables (based

on form, meaning, and function):
Declinables:
noun-words (noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, infinitive,

gerund),
adjective-words (adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participle),
verb (finite verb),
verbals (infinitive, gerund, participle).

Indeclinables:
adverb,
preposition,
conjunction,
interjection.
The historical perspective Non-structural descriptive grammarsHenry Sweet: declinables and indiclinables (based on form, meaning, and function):Declinables: noun-words

Слайд 10The historical perspective Non-structural descriptive grammars
Otto Jespersen (form and function)
substantives,
adjectives,

pronouns,
verbs,
and particles (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections).
Otto Jespersen

(function in a sentence):
primary, secondary, tertiary word.
A happily laughing child
(3) (2) (1)


The historical perspective Non-structural descriptive grammarsOtto Jespersen (form and function)substantives, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and particles (adverbs, prepositions,

Слайд 11The historical perspective Structural Descriptive Grammarians
Charles Fries , syntactic and

distributional analysis
(the combinability tested by substitution)
Words that exhibit the

same distribution (which is the set of contexts, i.e. immediate linguistic environments, in which a word can appear) belong to the same class.
Frame A: The concert was good.
Frame B: The clerk remembered the tax.
Frame C: The team went there.
Class 1 words (all words that can take the position of the words ‘concert, clerk, tax, team.
Class 2 words (was, remembered and went).
Class 3 words (good).
Class 4 words (there).

15 groups of function words: Group A (determiners), Group B (modal verbs, Group C (the negative particle ‘not’), etc.
The historical perspective Structural Descriptive GrammariansCharles Fries , syntactic and distributional analysis (the combinability tested by substitution)Words

Слайд 12Modern traditional approaches
The criteria:
semantic (generalized meaning) – meaning;
formal (inflexional

an derivation features) – form;
functional (syntactic role) – function.

Modern traditional approaches The criteria:semantic (generalized meaning) – meaning;formal (inflexional an derivation features) – form;functional (syntactic role)

Слайд 13 Modern traditional approaches (1)
Notional (having independent lexical meaning): noun,

adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

Functional (deprived of independent lexical meaning):

article, preposition, conjunction, particle, modal word, interjection.
Modern traditional approaches (1)  Notional (having independent lexical meaning): noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.Functional

Слайд 14 Modern traditional approaches
The Noun
meaning: ‘thingness’;
form: the changeable forms of

number and case (dog’s, dogs) and suffixal forms of derivation

(happiNESS, childHOOD, etc.);
function: subject, object, substantival predicative, preposition connections, modification by an adjective.
Modern traditional approaches  The Nounmeaning: ‘thingness’;form: the changeable forms of number and case (dog’s, dogs)

Слайд 15The Noun (function)
Subject: The boy is very happy.
Object: She saw

the boy.
Substantival predicative: This is a boy.
Prepositional connections: He came

up to the boy.
Modification by an adjective: He was a clever boy.

The Noun (function)Subject: The boy is very happy.Object: She saw the boy.Substantival predicative: This is a boy.Prepositional

Слайд 16Functional words
The preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of referents.
The

article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive function.

Functional wordsThe preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of referents.The article expresses the specific limitation of the

Слайд 17Subclasses: the noun
Proper and common (the Danube vs. a girl;
Animate and

inanimate (a man vs. a chair);
Countable and uncountable ( a

dog vs. information).
Subclasses: the nounProper and common (the Danube vs. a girl;Animate and inanimate (a man vs. a chair);Countable

Слайд 18Modern traditional approaches (2)
A part of speech is a class

of words characterized by:
Its lexico-grammatical meaning;
Its lexico-grammatical morphemes;
Its grammatical categories

or its paradigms;
Its combinability;
Its function in a sentence.
Modern traditional approaches (2)A part of speech is a class of words characterized by:Its lexico-grammatical meaning;Its lexico-grammatical

Слайд 19Modern traditional approaches (2)
lexico-grammatical meaning: nouns ‘substance’, verbs ‘action’, etc.;
lexico-grammatical

morphemes: -ness, -ist, -ism; -ize, -ify; -ful, -less,

-ish, etc.;
grammatical categories of paradigms: case and number for nouns (dog vs. dog’s, dog vs. dogs); tense, mood, voice, etc, for verbs (walk, walked, is walking, has walked, etc.).
Modern traditional approaches (2)lexico-grammatical meaning: nouns ‘substance’, verbs ‘action’, etc.;lexico-grammatical morphemes: -ness, -ist, -ism; -ize, -ify; -ful,

Слайд 20Modern traditional approaches (2)
combinability (the power of words to form

combinations of definite patterns with word of certain classes): nouns+

prepositions, but * preposition+ adverb (*for loudly);
function in a sentence.
The words often lack one or more features.
Modern traditional approaches (2)combinability (the power of words to form combinations of definite patterns with word of

Слайд 21Modern traditional approaches (2)
Nouns, adjective, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adverbs,

adlinks (the category of state: seem, look), modal words, prepositions,

conjunctions, particles, interjections, articles, response words (yes, no);
notional vs. semi-notional.
Modern traditional approaches (2) Nouns, adjective, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adverbs, adlinks (the category of state: seem, look),

Слайд 22 Semi-notional parts of speech
very general and comparatively weak lexical meaning

(rare or no substitutes);
unilateral or bilateral combinability (1) articles; 2)

preposition);
the functions of linking or specifying.
Semi-notional parts of speech very general and comparatively weak lexical meaning (rare or no substitutes);unilateral or

Слайд 23The latest approach (form and function)
“A Comprehensive Grammar of the English

Language”;
word classes are the most general categories to which lexical

items can be appropriately assigned (state further subclassification).

The latest approach (form and function)“A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language”;word classes are the most general

Слайд 24The latest approach
Closed classed (only exceptionally extended by the creation

of additional members);
Open classes (indefinitely extendable);
Numerals (between open-class and closed-class

items);
interjections (a closed class – fully institutionalized and few in number, but are grammatically peripheral);
a small number of words of unique function.
The latest approachClosed classed (only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members);Open classes (indefinitely extendable);Numerals (between

Слайд 25The latest approach
Closed classes: preposition – of, at, in, without,

in spite of; pronoun – he, they, anybody, one, which;

determiner – the, a, that, every, some; conjunction –and, that, when, although; modal verb – can, must, will, could; primary verb – be, have, do);
Open classes: noun – John, room, answer, play, adjective – happy, steady, new, large, round, full verb – search, grow, play, adverb – steadily, completely, really;
Numerals – two, three; first, second, third;
Interjections – oh, ah, wow etc;
words of unique function – the negative particle not and the infinitive marker to.

The latest approachClosed classes: preposition – of, at, in, without, in spite of; pronoun – he, they,

Слайд 26 Disputable points in the parts of speech classification
Nouns, verbs and

their properties are agreed upon by most scientists vs. particles,

modal word are more problematic;
Adverbs (a dustbin (F.Palmer), мусорная куча (V.Vinogradov): perfectly vs, again; after all, anyway, actually, etc.


Disputable points in the parts of speech classification Nouns, verbs and their properties are agreed upon

Слайд 27 The theory of field structure of the parts of speech

(V. Admoni)

Each part of speech has units (words) possessing all

the features typical of that parts of speech – the centre of the field;

there are unit which have some features only (periphery).

The theory of field structure of the parts of speech (V. Admoni) Each part of speech

Слайд 28Conclusion
Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words.
The classification can

be based on various criteria: formal, semantic, functional, or all

of them together.
Part of speech are historical variable.
There are problematic points which require solving.

ConclusionParts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words.The classification can be based on various criteria: formal, semantic,

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