2. history. types of lang

up to the middle of the 19th century, which is

called the beginning of comparative research;
the end of the 19th century – the period of neogrammarian studies, when linguists started comparing living languages;
the beginning of the 20th century up to the present – the period of structural and functional approaches to language.

Royal Monastery 1660),

was an attempt to create grammar on

‘‘common in all languages principles’’.

investigate genealogically related languages, principally Indian, Germanic and Romanic.

2)

At the same time general observations in non-related languages were being carried out. These observations helped to establish the languages’ isomorphic and allomorphic features. Thus, together with the historical and comparative study, typological investigations were born.

typology.
grouped all known to him languages into the four classes.

suggested evolutionary theory.
explained the divergences found in languages with the help of existence of ethnic psychology.
used the notion of folk’s spirit represented in national language.

form-building morphemes (like Chinese);

agglutinative languages (like those of the Turkic

group);

flexional languages (like the Indo-European and Semitic languages);

4) incorporating languages of American Indians, which are characterized by the possibility of words to combine and form specific word-sentences.

inflexional languages

by him to be archaic,

the agglutinative – to be

at the intermediary stage of development and

the inflexional ones as those representing the highest degree in language evolution.

WERE BASED ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE.

different structural types of

languages were shown as the stages of one process of the development of languages in general as the movement from less perfect to more perfect.

the only object of typological investigation was a word /

word-form.
It was investigated with an accent on its common and divergent features with the aim to establish a universal morphological classification.
Nevertheless, in some researches the object of investigation has moved from morphology to syntax.

PARAMETERS:
a) the degree of cohesion between the root and the

affixal morphemes in a word:
1) isolating (no formal elements),
2) agglutinative (affixal morphemes don’t cause the changes in
root morpheme),
3) fusional (when it is difficult to find the boundary between the
root and the affixal morphemes),
4) symbolic (root morphemes change because of the shift of the
stress , the change of intonation etc);

b) the degree of synthesis:
1) analytical,
2) synthetic
3) polysynthetic languages.

the ways of contrasting the microsystems of related and non-related

languages with the aim of investigating morphological and functional features.

At the same time syntactic relations (C.Bazell, I.I.Meshchaninov) and phonological features (N.Trubetskoy, Ch.Hockett, O. Isachenko) were taken into account.

POLYSYNTHETIC languages

they are also called amorphous or formless.

Grammatical relations in

these L. are expressed by word order.

The best specimen of an I.L. is Chinese, which is monosyllabic and invariable.

and the meanings of words
of the same structure
are

distinguished by
tones and
position of the word in the sentence.

in the sentence.

2) a strictly prescribed order of suffixes etc.

(okul ‘‘школа’’,
okullar ‘‘школи’’,
okullarimiz ‘‘наші школи’’,
okullarimizda ‘‘в наших школах”)
These features are permanent for Turkic languages, so it is possible to contrast them to another group of languages.

a change in meaning or grammatical function.

Often there is

no clear boundary between the root and the part which shows the grammatical meaning: mice (mouse + plural)

Indo-European as Greek, Latin, English, Russian, Ukrainian etc. and Semitic languages

/ sentence distinction
which are characterized
by the possibility of

words
to combine and form
specific sentence structures.

inialudam (Am.Indian)

i - n - i - a - l - u - d - a - m
i-past time
n-personal pronoun ‘‘I’’
i-personal pronoun ‘‘it’’
a-possessive pronoun ‘‘her’’
L-preposition of direction ‘‘to’’
u-indicates movement away from the speaker
d=give
am-modifies the verbal content in a local sense

the variety of consonantal phonemes and the small number of

vocalic phonemes –
Ukrainian, Russian, Polish

number of consonants,
and the number of vowels
exceeds the

average number
of vocalic phonemes –
English, German, Slovenian, Serbian-Croat

the grammatical relations between words are expressed by forms of

the words themselves.

ANALYTICAL languages, in which the grammatical relations are expressed by means of prepositions. They are also characterized by the use of auxiliary words and a fixed word order (S-V-O).

synthetic L. only.

Compare:

e.g. The hunter killed the bear & The bear killed the hunter,
e.g. Мисливець убив ведмедя = Ведмедя убив мисливець.

action
and is expressed in the Nominative Case (Indo-European and

Semitic L.).

subject in the Nom. Case=doer of the action

and the object.
2) The subject is in the Ergative

Case.

e.g. Such a structure can be illustrated by the sentence:
Його убило блискавкою (Caucasian L.).

forming up within the syntactic unit. They merge with the

verb-predicate into a single unit, in which the predicate is a leading component (incorporative L.).

Phonology’’).

subject and the predicate in the sentence.

 G.P.Melnikov
proposed the

theory of determinants (on the basis of the dominant features).

 R.Yakobson
studied language universals.


 

interrelations in the North-American countries.

 O.Isachenko – investigated Slavonic languages. He

divided languages into vocalic and consonantal on the principle of their quantitative representation.

 M.A.Kalinovich – morphological divergencies in European and South-Asian languages.

R. P. Zorivchak – studied English and Ukrainian correspondencies in nominating different things and objects of the surrounding world with an accent on their national peculiarities.