Change of meaning. Causes & results of semantic change: metaphor, metonymy,

metaphor, metonymy, euphemism.

nature and results.
The factors accounting for semantic changes may

be roughly subdivided into two groups: extra-linguistic, linguistic causes.

life of the speech community, changes in economic and social

structure, changes in ideas, scientific concepts, way of life, changes in culture, arts as reflected in word meanings.

old mill was applied to these early industrial enterprises. In

this way mill (a Latin borrowing of the first century) added a new meaning to its former meaning “a building in which corn is ground into flour”. The new meaning was “textile factory”.

system or through the influence of other words, mostly of

synonyms. F: the word land in old English meant both “solid part of earth’s surface” and “the territory of a nation”.

the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds

of association involved in various semantic changes: similarity of meaning (metaphor) and contiguity of meaning (metonymy).

Transference based on contiguity is metonymy. The process of development

of a new meaning or a change of meaning is traditionally termed transference. The transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison or resemblance is called metaphor.

bottleneck, teeth of a comb
B) similarity of position, e.g. foot

of a mountain, a page, leg of a table
C) similarity of function, behaviour, e.g. branch of a science
D) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, chestnut

body, e.g. an eye of a needle, mouth of a

river, head of an army
F) when proper names become common nouns, e.g. vandals-destructive people, a Don Juan-a lover of many women

is called metonymy. For example,
There are different types of metonymy:
A)

the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object, e.g. a glass, boards, iron
B) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House –members of Parliament, Fleet Street – bourgeois press, the White House – the administration of the USA

e.g. the violin, the saxophone
d) the name of some

person may become a common noun, e.g. boycott was originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them, sandwich-was named after Lord sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to soil his fingers.

things they invented, e.g. watt, om
F) some geographical names can

also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. Holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets), china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur)

associating two referents one of which makes part of the

other or is closely connected with it. This association is based upon suitable psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with much difficulty.

often appear in common situations, and so the image of

one is easily accompanied by the image of the other; or they may be associated on the principle of cause and effect, of common function, of some material and an object which is made of it.

substitution of words of mild or vague connotations for expressions

rough, unpleasant or for some other reasons unmentionable.
With peoples of developed culture, euphemism is different, is dictated by social usage, moral tact and etiquette.
E.g. queer- mad

following sentences and comment on them.
1. I have never read

Balzac in the original.
2. I had a new pride of my rooms after his approval of them, and burned with a desire to develop their utmost resources.
3. My sister is fond of old china.
4. The coffee-pot is boiling.
5. Every time I see him, my heart sinks.
6. We didn’t really mean that he has green fingers, only that he is good at gardening.
7. She has a heart of stone.
8. While the others were settling down, Lucy saw Pearson take another bite from his sandwich.
9. Those who had been the head of the line paused momentarily on entry and looked around curiously.
10. They sat on the rug before the fireplace, savouring its warmth, watching of the rising tongues of flame.