Lexicology

characteristics
II. Ways of borrowing into English
III. Criteria and assimilation of

borrowings
IV. Special types of borrowing

Isles
the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes)

1.Words of the Indo-European stock,
2. words of the common Germanic origin,
3. English words proper.
_______________________________
Ex, English “star”, German “Stern”, Latin “Stella”, Greek “Aster”.

(father, mother, daughter),
natural phenomena (Sun, Moon, star, wind, storm),
names of

animals and birds (horse, goose),
parts of human body (heart, eye, foot),
qualities and properties (old, young, cold),
common actions (come, sit, stand).

English “summer/winter”,
German “Sommer/Winter”.
The English element proper
no cognates in

other languages
Ex. Lady, always, girl, lord, daisy, boy.

borrowing is a word taken over from another language and

modified in phonemic shape, spelling paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.
2 ways:
through oral speech,
Ex. Old borrowings from Latin: inch, mill, street
through written speech.
(French “belles-lettres”)

pronunciation and spelling (ex., “psychology” Greek, “machine” French),
unusual morphological structure

and grammatical forms (ex., Pl. bacteria Sg. Bacterium - Latin),
specific lexical meaning (ex., pagoda, rickshaw - Chinese).

form and stress
(ex., German “Spitz”/ English “Spitz”),
grammatical assimilation causing

the loss of former grammatical categories and affixes and the acquirement of new paradigms
(ex., Latin “botanicus” was turned into English “botanical”),
semantic assimilation comprising adjustment to the system of meanings of the voc-ry
(ex., “gay” was borrowed from French with several meanings: noble of birth, bright shining, multicolored. Now it means “joyful” or “high-spirited”).

assimilation loan-words fall into 3 groups:
1. completely assimilated words (ex.,

French “pain” is readily combined with native affixes “pained, painful, painless”),

sombrero),
not assimilated grammatically (ex., borrowings from Latin, Greek: formula/ae),
not assimilated

phonetically (prestige, memoir -- French),
not assimilated graphically (ex., the final silent “t” in ballet -- French).

conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way

and for which there are corresponding English equivalents (ex., chaos, adios).

of words, which have one and the same original form,

but which have acquired different forms and even different meanings during the course of linguistic development.

Ex: the words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonetic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance, which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.

from Russian “стенная газета”)
The semantic loan Ex., English “pioneer”

originally meant “explorer”. Under the influence of Russian word it has come to mean “a member of the young pioneer organization”.